Improved resolution of glutamate, glutamine and γ-aminobutyric acid with optimized point-resolved spectroscopy sequence timings for their simultaneous quantification at 9.4 T

Metabolic alterations in the visual pathway of retinitis pigmentosa rats: A longitudinal multimodal magnetic resonance imaging study with histopathological validation

Because retinitis pigmentosa (RP) has been shown to cause degenerative changes in the entire visual pathway, there is an urgent need to perform longitudinal assessments of RP-induced degeneration and identify imaging protocols to detect this degeneration as early as possible. In this study, we assessed a transgenic rat model of RP by using complementary noninvasive magnetic resonance imaging techniques, namely, proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (¹ H-MRS), to investigate the metabolic changes in RP. Our study demonstrated decreased concentrations and ratios to creatine (Cr) of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), glutamate (Glu), γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), and taurine (Tau), whereas myo-inositol (Ins) and choline (Cho) were increased in the visual cortex of Royal College of Surgeons (RCS) rats compared with control rats (p < 0.05). Furthermore, with the progression of RP, the concentrations of NAA, Glu, GABA, and Tau, and the ratios of GABA/Cr and Tau/Cr significantly decreased over time, whereas the concentrations of Ins and Cho and the ratio of Ins/Cr significantly increased over time (p < 0.05). In addition, in RCS rats, NAA/Cr decreased significantly from 3 to 4 months postnatal (p < 0.001), and Cho/Cr increased significantly from 4 to 5 months postnatal (p = 0.005). Meanwhile, the ¹ H-MRS indicators in 5-month postnatal RCS rats could be confirmed by immunohistochemical staining. In conclusion, with the progression of RP, the metabolic alterations in the visual cortex indicated progressive reprogramming with the decrease of neurons and axons, accompanied by the proliferation of gliocytes.

γ-aminobutyric acid measurement in the human brain at 7 T: Short echo-time or Mescher-Garwood editing

The purposes of the current study were to introduce a Mescher-Garwood (MEGA) semi-adiabatic spin-echo full-intensity localization (MEGA-sSPECIAL) sequence with macromolecule (MM) subtraction and to compare the test-retest reproducibility of γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) measurements at 7 T using the sSPECIAL and MEGA-sSPECIAL sequences. The MEGA-sSPECIAL editing scheme using asymmetric adiabatic and highly selective Gaussian pulses was used to compare its GABA measurement reproducibility with that of short echo-time (TE) sSPECIAL. Proton magnetic resonance spectra were acquired in the motor cortex (M1) and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) using the sSPECIAL (TR/TE = 4000/16 ms) and MEGA-sSPECIAL sequences (TR/TE = 4000/80 ms). The metabolites were quantified using LCModel with unsuppressed water spectra. The concentrations are reported in institutional units. The test-retest reproducibility was evaluated by scanning each subject twice. Between-session reproducibility was assessed using coefficients of variation (CVs), Pearson's r correlation coefficients, and intraclass correlation coefficients (ICCs). Intersequence agreement was evaluated using Pearson's r correlation coefficients and Bland-Altman plots. Regarding GABA measurements by sSPECIAL, the GABA concentrations were 0.92 ± 0.31 (IU) in the M1 and 1.56 ± 0.49 (IU) in the mPFC. This demonstrated strong between-session correlation across both regions (r = 0.81, p < 0.01; ICC = 0.82). The CVs between the two scans were 21.8% in the M1 and 10.2% in the mPFC. On the other hand, the GABA measurements by MEGA-sSPECIAL were 0.52 ± 0.04 (IU) in the M1 and 1.04 ± 0.24 (IU) in the mPFC. MEGA-sSPECIAL demonstrated strong between-session correlation across the two regions (r = 0.98, p < 0.001; ICC = 0.98) and lower CVs than sSPECIAL, providing 4.1% in the M1 and 5.8% in the mPFC. The MEGA-editing method showed better reproducibility of GABA measurements in both brain regions compared with the short-TE sSPECIAL method. Thus it is a more sensitive method with which to detect small changes in areas with low GABA concentrations. In GABA-rich brain regions, GABA measurements can be achieved reproducibly using both methods.

Dietary supplementation with Lactobacillus rhamnosus JB-1 restores brain neurochemical balance and mitigates the progression of mood disorder in a rat model of chronic unpredictable mild stress

Major depressive disorder is a stress-related disease associated with brain metabolic dysregulation in the glutamine-glutamate/γ-aminobutyric acid (Gln-Glu/GABA) cycle. Recent studies have demonstrated that microbiome-gut-brain interactions have the potential to influence mental health. The hypothesis of this study was that Lactobacillus rhamnosus JB-1 (LR-JB1™) dietary supplementation has a positive impact on neuro-metabolism which can be quantified in vivo using magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS). A rat model of depressive-like disorder, chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS), was used. Baseline comparisons of MRS and behavior were obtained in a control group and in a stressed group subjected to CUMS. Of the 22 metabolites measured using MRS, stressed rats had significantly lower concentrations of GABA, glutamate, glutamine + glutathione, glutamate + glutamine, total creatine, and total N-acetylaspartate (tNAA). Stressed rats were then separated into 2 groups and supplemented with either LR-JB1™ or placebo and re-evaluated after 4 weeks of continued CUMS. The LR-JB1™ microbiotic diet restored these metabolites to levels previously observed in controls, while the placebo diet resulted in further significant decrease of glutamate, total choline, and tNAA. LR-JB1™ treated animals also exhibited calmer and more relaxed behavior, as compared with placebo treated animals. In summary, significant cerebral biochemical downregulation of major brain metabolites following prolonged stress were measured in vivo using MRS, and these decreases were reversed using a microbiotic dietary supplement of LR-JB1™, even in the presence of continued stress, which also resulted in a reduction of stress-induced behavior in a rat model of depressive-like disorder.

PRESS timings for resolving 13 C4 -glutamate 1 H signal at 9.4 T: Demonstration in rat with uniformly labelled 13 C-glucose

MRS of ¹³ C₄ -labelled glutamate (¹³ C₄ -Glu) during an infusion of a carbon-13 (¹³ C)-labelled substrate, such as uniformly labelled glucose ([U-¹³ C₆ ]-Glc), provides a measure of Glc metabolism. The presented work provides a single-shot indirect ¹³ C detection technique to quantify the approximately 2.51 ppm ¹³ C₄ -Glu satellite proton (¹ H) peak at 9.4 T. The methodology is an optimized point-resolved spectroscopy (PRESS) sequence that minimizes signal contamination from the strongly coupled protons of N-acetylaspartate (NAA), which resonate at approximately 2.49 ppm. J-coupling evolution of protons was characterized numerically and verified experimentally. A (TE₁ , TE₂ ) combination of (20 ms, 106 ms) was found to be suitable for minimizing NAA signal in the 2.51 ppm ¹ H ¹³ C₄ -Glu spectral region, while retaining the ¹³ C₄ -Glu ¹ H satellite peak. The efficacy of the technique was verified on phantom solutions and on two rat brains in vivo during an infusion of [U-¹³ C₆ ]-Glc. LCModel was employed for analysis of the in vivo spectra to quantify the 2.51 ppm ¹ H ¹³ C₄ -Glu signal to obtain Glu C4 fractional enrichment time courses during the infusions. Cramér-Rao lower bounds of about 8% were obtained for the 2.51 ppm ¹³ C₄ -Glu ¹ H satellite peak with the optimal TE combination.

Multi‑organ assessment via a 9.4‑Tesla MRS evaluation of metabolites during the embryonic development of cleft palate induced by dexamethasone

The aim of the present study was to determine the association between maternal metabolism and development of the fetal palate, and to suggest a potential non‑invasive prenatal diagnostic method for fetal cleft palate (CP). Dexamethasone (DXM) was used to create a CP mouse model. A 9.4‑Tesla (T) magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS) imager was used to measure an array of metabolites in the maternal serum, placental tissue, amniotic fluid and fetal palates. Multivariate statistical analysis was performed using SIMCA‑P 14.1 software. Following DXM treatment, variations were detected in multiple metabolites in the female mice and their fetuses based on 9.4T MRS. It was indicated that in the experimental group during CP formation, leucine, valine, creatine, acetate and citrate levels in the palatal tissue were lower, whereas lactate, alanine, proline/inositol and glutamate‑containing metabolite levels were higher, compared with the levels in the control group. In placental tissue and amniotic fluid, succinate and choline levels were lower in the experimental group. The relative concentrations of cholesterol and lipids in palatal tissues from mice treated with DXM were higher compared with the concentrations in tissues from mice in the control group, with the exception of (CH2)n lipids. In the placental tissue, the alteration in cholesterol level exhibited the opposite trend. Lipid levels for the different lipid forms varied and most of them were unsaturated lipids.

Frequency-specific effects of low-intensity rTMS can persist for up to 2 weeks post-stimulation: A longitudinal rs-fMRI/MRS study in rats

BACKGROUND

Evidence suggests that repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS), a non-invasive neuromodulation technique, alters resting brain activity. Despite anecdotal evidence that rTMS effects wear off, there are no reports of longitudinal studies, even in humans, mapping the therapeutic duration of rTMS effects.

OBJECTIVE

Here, we investigated the longitudinal effects of repeated low-intensity rTMS (LI-rTMS) on healthy rodent resting-state networks (RSNs) using resting-state functional MRI (rs-fMRI) and on sensorimotor cortical neurometabolite levels using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MRS).

METHODS

Sprague-Dawley rats received 10 min LI-rTMS daily for 15 days (10 Hz or 1 Hz stimulation, n = 9 per group). MRI data were acquired at baseline, after seven days and after 14 days of daily stimulation and at two more timepoints up to three weeks post-cessation of daily stimulation.

RESULTS

10 Hz stimulation increased RSN connectivity and GABA, glutamine, and glutamate levels. 1 Hz stimulation had opposite but subtler effects, resulting in decreased RSN connectivity and glutamine levels. The induced changes decreased to baseline levels within seven days following stimulation cessation in the 10 Hz group but were sustained for at least 14 days in the 1 Hz group.

CONCLUSION

Overall, our study provides evidence of long-term frequency-specific effects of LI-rTMS. Additionally, the transient connectivity changes following 10 Hz stimulation suggest that current treatment protocols involving this frequency may require ongoing "top-up" stimulation sessions to maintain therapeutic effects.

Regional metabolic differences in rat prefrontal cortex measured with in vivo 1 H-MRS correlate with regional histochemical differences

Many neurological/psychiatric disorders are associated with metabolic abnormalities in the brain observable with in vivo proton MRS (¹ H-MRS). The underlying molecular/cellular mechanisms and functional correlations of such metabolic alterations, however, are yet to be understood fully. The rodent prefrontal cortex (PFC) is comprised of multiple sub-regions with distinctive cytoarchitecture and functions, providing a good model system to study the correlations among cerebral metabolism, regional cytoarchitecture and connectivity. In this study, the metabolic profiles in two voxels containing mainly the medial PFC (mPFC) and posterior part of the cingulate cortex (pCG), respectively, were measured with single-voxel in vivo ¹ H-MRS in adult male rats. The levels of glutamine synthetase and glutamatergic synaptic proteins, including vesicular glutamate transporter 1, vesicular glutamate transporter 2 (VGLUT2) and post-synaptic density protein 95 (PSD95), as well as the density of astrocytes, in these two regions were also compared semi-quantitatively. It was shown that, relative to the pCG voxel, the mPFC voxel had significantly higher N-acetyl aspartate, glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln), Glx (Glu + Gln), myo-inositol and taurine levels. The VGLUT2/PSD95 levels and astrocyte density were also higher in the mPFC voxel than in the pCG voxel. Taken together, these results indicated that regional metabolic variations in the PFC of the adult male rat may reflect regional differences in the density of astrocytes and glutamatergic terminals associated with subcortical projections. The study provided a link between the Glu concentration measured with localized in vivo ¹ H-MRS and regional glutamatergic activities/connections in the rat PFC.