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Markussen KH, Corti M, Byrne BJ, Kooi CWV, Sun RC, Gentry MS. The multifaceted roles of the brain glycogen. J Neurochem 2024; 168:728-743. [PMID: 37554056 PMCID: PMC10901277 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15926] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2023] [Revised: 07/04/2023] [Accepted: 07/07/2023] [Indexed: 08/10/2023]
Abstract
Glycogen is a biologically essential macromolecule that is directly involved in multiple human diseases. While its primary role in carbohydrate storage and energy metabolism in the liver and muscle is well characterized, recent research has highlighted critical metabolic and non-metabolic roles for glycogen in the brain. In this review, the emerging roles of glycogen homeostasis in the healthy and diseased brain are discussed with a focus on advancing our understanding of the role of glycogen in the brain. Innovative technologies that have led to novel insights into glycogen functions are detailed. Key insights into how cellular localization impacts neuronal and glial function are discussed. Perturbed glycogen functions are observed in multiple disorders of the brain, including where it serves as a disease driver in the emerging category of neurological glycogen storage diseases (n-GSDs). n-GSDs include Lafora disease (LD), adult polyglucosan body disease (APBD), Cori disease, Glucose transporter type 1 deficiency syndrome (G1D), GSD0b, and late-onset Pompe disease (PD). They are neurogenetic disorders characterized by aberrant glycogen which results in devastating neurological and systemic symptoms. In the most severe cases, rapid neurodegeneration coupled with dementia results in death soon after diagnosis. Finally, we discuss current treatment strategies that are currently being developed and have the potential to be of great benefit to patients with n-GSD. Taken together, novel technologies and biological insights have resulted in a renaissance in brain glycogen that dramatically advanced our understanding of both biology and disease. Future studies are needed to expand our understanding and the multifaceted roles of glycogen and effectively apply these insights to human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kia H. Markussen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, College of Medicine, University of Kentucky, USA
| | - Manuela Corti
- Department of Pediatrics, Powell Gene Therapy Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, USA
| | - Barry J. Byrne
- Department of Pediatrics, Powell Gene Therapy Center, College of Medicine, University of Florida, USA
| | - Craig W. Vander Kooi
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, USA
- Center for Advanced Spatial Biomolecule Research, University of Florida
- Lafora Epilepsy Cure Initiative
| | - Ramon C. Sun
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, USA
- Center for Advanced Spatial Biomolecule Research, University of Florida
- Lafora Epilepsy Cure Initiative
| | - Matthew S. Gentry
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, USA
- Center for Advanced Spatial Biomolecule Research, University of Florida
- Lafora Epilepsy Cure Initiative
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2
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Juras JA, Webb MB, Young LE, Markussen KH, Hawkinson TR, Buoncristiani MD, Bolton KE, Coburn PT, Williams MI, Sun LP, Sanders WC, Bruntz RC, Conroy LR, Wang C, Gentry MS, Smith BN, Sun RC. In situ microwave fixation provides an instantaneous snapshot of the brain metabolome. CELL REPORTS METHODS 2023; 3:100455. [PMID: 37159672 PMCID: PMC10163000 DOI: 10.1016/j.crmeth.2023.100455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2022] [Revised: 02/14/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 05/11/2023]
Abstract
Brain glucose metabolism is highly heterogeneous among brain regions and continues postmortem. In particular, we demonstrate exhaustion of glycogen and glucose and an increase in lactate production during conventional rapid brain resection and preservation by liquid nitrogen. In contrast, we show that these postmortem changes are not observed with simultaneous animal sacrifice and in situ fixation with focused, high-power microwave. We further employ microwave fixation to define brain glucose metabolism in the mouse model of streptozotocin-induced type 1 diabetes. Using both total pool and isotope tracing analyses, we identified global glucose hypometabolism in multiple brain regions, evidenced by reduced 13C enrichment into glycogen, glycolysis, and the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. Reduced glucose metabolism correlated with a marked decrease in GLUT2 expression and several metabolic enzymes in unique brain regions. In conclusion, our study supports the incorporation of microwave fixation for more accurate studies of brain metabolism in rodent models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jelena A. Juras
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Madison B. Webb
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Lyndsay E.A. Young
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Kia H. Markussen
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Tara R. Hawkinson
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Michael D. Buoncristiani
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Kayli E. Bolton
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Peyton T. Coburn
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Meredith I. Williams
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Lisa P.Y. Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - William C. Sanders
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Ronald C. Bruntz
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Lindsey R. Conroy
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Chi Wang
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Division of Biostatics, Department of Internal Medicine, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
| | - Matthew S. Gentry
- Department of Molecular and Cellular Biochemistry, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Center for Advanced Spatial Biomolecule Research, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Bret N. Smith
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO 80523, USA
| | - Ramon C. Sun
- Department of Neuroscience, University of Kentucky, College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Markey Cancer Center, University of Kentucky, Lexington, KY 40536, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
- Center for Advanced Spatial Biomolecule Research, University of Florida, College of Medicine, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
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3
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Li H, Liao H, Zhang C, Xu Y, Xu X, Chen Y, Song S, Li Q, Si Y, Bao H. Disrupted metabolic and spontaneous neuronal activity of hippocampus in sepsis associated encephalopathy rats: A study combining magnetic resonance spectroscopy and resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1032098. [PMID: 36466179 PMCID: PMC9713233 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1032098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 08/23/2024] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The diagnosis of sepsis associated encephalopathy (SAE) remains challenging in clinical settings because of a lack of specific biomarkers. Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) can be used to aid in the diagnosis of cognition related diseases. This study investigated changes in functional activities and brain metabolites in the hippocampus in SAE rats by fMRI and 1H-MRS. MATERIALS AND METHODS Sepsis associated encephalopathy rats underwent cecal ligation and perforation (CLP) surgery. The Morris water maze (MWM) test was then used to evaluate cognitive function. Resting state-fMRI and 1H-MRS scanning were performed 7 and 14 days after CLP surgery to reveal spontaneous neuronal activity and metabolite changes in the hippocampus. The amplitude of low-frequency fluctuation (ALFF) was used to evaluate spontaneous neuronal activity in the hippocampus. Creatine (Cr), Myo-inositol (mI), and glutamine/glutamate (Glx) levels were measured with 1H-MRS scanning. Immunofluorescence and levels of interleukin (IL)-1β, interleukin (IL)-6, and C-reactive protein (CRP) in the hippocampus were additionally detected to evaluate microglial mediated inflammatory responses. Statistical analysis was performed to evaluate correlations between hippocampal metabolism and behavioral findings. RESULTS Cecal ligation and perforation treated rats exhibited impaired learning and memory function in the MWM test at days 7 and 14. Elevation of IL-1β in the hippocampus, as well as immunofluorescence results, confirmed severe neuro inflammation in the hippocampus in SAE rats. Compared with the sham group, the ALFF of the right CA-1 area of the hippocampus was higher at day 7after CLP surgery. The Glx/Cr and mI/Cr ratios were enhanced at day 7 after CLP surgery and slightly lower at day 14 after CLP surgery. The ALFF value, and Glx/Cr and mI/Cr ratios were negatively correlated with time spent in the target quadrant in the MWM test. CONCLUSION Spontaneous neuronal activity and metabolites showed significant alterations in SAE rats. The elevated ALFF value, Glx/Cr ratio, and mI/Cr ratio in the hippocampus were positively associated with cognitive deficits. Changes in ALFF and metabolites in hippocampus may serve as potential neuroimaging biomarkers of cognitive disorders in patients with SAE.
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Affiliation(s)
- Haojia Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongsen Liao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Chen Zhang
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yajie Xu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Xiaomin Xu
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing First Hospital Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yuchen Chen
- Department of Radiology, Nanjing First Hospital Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Shaozheng Song
- Department of Basic Medicine, School of Health and Nursing, Wuxi Taihu University, Wuxi, Jiangsu, China
| | - Qian Li
- Department of Anesthesiology, Jiangning Hospital Affiliated to Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Yanna Si
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
| | - Hongguang Bao
- Department of Anesthesiology, Nanjing First Hospital, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, Jiangsu, China
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4
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Bindila L, Eid T, Mills JD, Hildebrand MS, Brennan GP, Masino SA, Whittemore V, Perucca P, Reid CA, Patel M, Wang KK, van Vliet EA. A companion to the preclinical common data elements for proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics data in rodent epilepsy models. A report of the TASK3-WG4 omics working group of the ILAE/AES joint translational TASK force. Epilepsia Open 2022. [PMID: 36259125 DOI: 10.1002/epi4.12662] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Abstract
The International League Against Epilepsy/American Epilepsy Society (ILAE/AES) Joint Translational Task Force established the TASK3 working groups to create common data elements (CDEs) for various preclinical epilepsy research disciplines. This is the second in a two-part series of omics papers, with the other including genomics, transcriptomics, and epigenomics. The aim of the CDEs was to improve the standardization of experimental designs across a range of epilepsy research-related methods. We have generated CDE tables with key parameters and case report forms (CRFs) containing the essential contents of the study protocols for proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics of samples from rodent models and people with epilepsy. We discuss the important elements that need to be considered for the proteomics, lipidomics, and metabolomics methodologies, providing a rationale for the parameters that should be documented.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Bindila
- Clinical Lipidomics Unit, Institute of Physiological Chemistry, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
| | - Tore Eid
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - James D Mills
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Michael S Hildebrand
- Epilepsy Research Centre, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), The University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Murdoch Children's Research Institute, The Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Gary P Brennan
- UCD School of Biomolecular and Biomedical Science, Conway Institute, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland
- FutureNeuro Research Centre, Royal College of Surgeons in Ireland, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Susan A Masino
- Neuroscience Program and Psychology Department, Life Sciences Center, Trinity College, Hartford, Connecticut, USA
| | - Vicky Whittemore
- Division of Neuroscience, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, USA
| | - Piero Perucca
- Epilepsy Research Centre, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), The University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Bladin-Berkovic Comprehensive Epilepsy Program, Austin Health, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Neuroscience, Central Clinical School, Monash University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Neurology, The Royal Melbourne Hospital, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Neurology, Alfred Health, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christopher A Reid
- Epilepsy Research Centre, Department of Medicine (Austin Health), The University of Melbourne, Heidelberg, Victoria, Australia
- Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Manisha Patel
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Kevin K Wang
- Program for Neurotrauma, Neuroproteomics & Biomarker Research (NNBR), Department of Emergency Medicine, Psychiatry and Neuroscience, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida, USA
- Brain Rehabilitation Research Center, Malcom Randall VA Medical Center, North Florida/South Georgia Veterans Health System, Gainesville, Florida, USA
| | - Erwin A van Vliet
- Amsterdam UMC location University of Amsterdam, Department of (Neuro)Pathology, Amsterdam Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
- Center for Neuroscience, Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
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5
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Heimer J, Gascho D, Thali MJ, Zoelch N. Fundamentals of in situ Postmortem Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy of the Brain in the Forensic Framework - A Review and Outlook. FORENSIC IMAGING 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.fri.2022.200499] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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6
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Chen QM, Yao FR, Sun HW, Chen ZG, Ke J, Liao J, Cai XY, Yu LQ, Wu ZY, Wang Z, Pan X, Liu HY, Li L, Zhang QQ, Ling WH, Fang Q. Combining inhibitory and facilitatory repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) treatment improves motor function by modulating GABA in acute ischemic stroke patients. Restor Neurol Neurosci 2021; 39:419-434. [PMID: 34924405 DOI: 10.3233/rnn-211195] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The combination of inhibitory and facilitatory repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) can improve motor function of stroke patients with undefined mechanism. It has been demonstrated that rTMS exhibits a neuro-modulatory effect by regulating the major inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) in other diseases. OBJECTIVES To evaluate the effect of combined inhibitory and facilitatory rTMS on GABA in the primary motor cortex (M1) for treating motor dysfunction after acute ischemic stroke. METHODS 44 ischemic stroke patients with motor dysfunction were randomly divided into two groups. The treatment group was stimulated with 10 Hz rTMS at the ipsilesional M1 and 1 Hz rTMS at the contralesional M1. The sham group received bilateral sham stimulation at the motor cortices. The GABA level in the bilateral M1 was measured by proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) at 24 hours before and after rTMS stimulation. Motor function was measured using the Fugl-Meyer Assessment (FMA). The clinical assessments were performed before and after rTMS and after 3 months. RESULTS The treatment group exhibited a greater improvement in motor function 24 hours after rTMS compared to the sham group. The increased improvement in motor function lasted for at least 3 months after treatment. Following 4 weeks of rTMS, the GABA level in the ipsilesional M1 of the treatment group was significantly decreased compared to the sham group. Furthermore, the change of FMA score for motor function was negatively correlated to the change of the GABA:Cr ratio. Finally, the effect of rTMS on motor function outcome was partially mediated by GABA level change in response to the treatment (27.7%). CONCLUSIONS Combining inhibitory and facilitatory rTMS can decrease the GABA level in M1, which is correlated to the improvement of motor function. Thus, the GABA level in M1 may be a potential biomarker for treatment strategy decisions regarding rTMS neuromodulatory interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Mei Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China.,Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Fei-Rong Yao
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Hai-Wei Sun
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhi-Guo Chen
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Jun Ke
- Department of Radiology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Juan Liao
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xiu-Ying Cai
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Li-Qiang Yu
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhen-Yan Wu
- Health Management Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Zhi Wang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Xi Pan
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Hao-Yu Liu
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Li Li
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Quan-Quan Zhang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Wei-Hua Ling
- Department of Emergency Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Qi Fang
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, Jiangsu Province, China
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Andres-Mach M, Szewczyk A, Zagaja M, Szala-Rycaj J, Lemieszek MK, Maj M, Abram M, Kaminski K. Preclinical Assessment of a New Hybrid Compound C11 Efficacy on Neurogenesis and Cognitive Functions after Pilocarpine Induced Status Epilepticus in Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22063240. [PMID: 33810180 PMCID: PMC8004689 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22063240] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 03/19/2021] [Accepted: 03/20/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Status epilepticus (SE) is a frequent medical emergency that can lead to a variety of neurological disorders, including cognitive impairment and abnormal neurogenesis. The aim of the presented study was the in vitro evaluation of potential neuroprotective properties of a new pyrrolidine-2,5-dione derivatives compound C11, as well as the in vivo assessment of the impact on the neurogenesis and cognitive functions of C11 and levetiracetam (LEV) after pilocarpine (PILO)-induced SE in mice. The in vitro results indicated a protective effect of C11 (500, 1000, and 2500 ng/mL) on astrocytes under trophic stress conditions in the MTT (3-[4,5-dimethylthiazole-2-yl]-2,5-diphenyltetrazolium bromide) test. The results obtained from the in vivo studies, where mice 72 h after PILO SE were treated with C11 (20 mg/kg) and LEV (10 mg/kg), indicated markedly beneficial effects of C11 on the improvement of the neurogenesis compared to the PILO control and PILO LEV mice. Moreover, this beneficial effect was reflected in the Morris Water Maze test evaluating the cognitive functions in mice. The in vitro confirmed protective effect of C11 on astrocytes, as well as the in vivo demonstrated beneficial impact on neurogenesis and cognitive functions, strongly indicate the need for further advanced molecular research on this compound to determine the exact neuroprotective mechanism of action of C11.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Andres-Mach
- Isobolographic Analysis Laboratory, Institute of Rural Health, Jaczewskiego 2, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (A.S.); (M.Z.); (J.S.-R.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +48-81-718-4488
| | - Aleksandra Szewczyk
- Isobolographic Analysis Laboratory, Institute of Rural Health, Jaczewskiego 2, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (A.S.); (M.Z.); (J.S.-R.)
| | - Mirosław Zagaja
- Isobolographic Analysis Laboratory, Institute of Rural Health, Jaczewskiego 2, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (A.S.); (M.Z.); (J.S.-R.)
| | - Joanna Szala-Rycaj
- Isobolographic Analysis Laboratory, Institute of Rural Health, Jaczewskiego 2, 20-090 Lublin, Poland; (A.S.); (M.Z.); (J.S.-R.)
| | | | - Maciej Maj
- Department of Biopharmacy, Medical University of Lublin, Chodzki 4A, 20-090 Lublin, Poland;
| | - Michał Abram
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Cracow, Poland; (M.A.); (K.K.)
| | - Krzysztof Kaminski
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Medyczna 9, 30-688 Cracow, Poland; (M.A.); (K.K.)
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8
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Dienel GA. Stop the rot. Enzyme inactivation at brain harvest prevents artifacts: A guide for preservation of the in vivo concentrations of brain constituents. J Neurochem 2021; 158:1007-1031. [PMID: 33636013 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15293] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2020] [Revised: 12/30/2020] [Accepted: 01/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Post-mortem metabolism is widely recognized to cause rapid and prolonged changes in the concentrations of multiple classes of compounds in brain, that is, they are labile. Post-mortem changes from levels in living brain include components of pathways of metabolism of glucose and energy compounds, amino acids, lipids, signaling molecules, neuropeptides, phosphoproteins, and proteins. Methods that stop enzyme activity at brain harvest were developed almost 50 years ago and have been extensively used in studies of brain functions and diseases. Unfortunately, these methods are not commonly used to harvest brain tissue for mass spectrometry-based metabolomic studies or for imaging mass spectrometry studies (IMS, also called mass spectrometry imaging, MSI, or matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-MSI, MALDI-MSI). Instead these studies commonly kill animals, decapitate, dissect out brain and regions of interest if needed, then 'snap' freeze the tissue to stop enzymatic activity after harvest, with post-mortem intervals typically ranging from ~0.5 to 3 min. To increase awareness of the importance of stopping metabolism at harvest and preventing the unnecessary complications of not doing so, this commentary provides examples of labile metabolites and the magnitudes of their post-mortem changes in concentrations during brain harvest. Brain harvest methods that stop metabolism at harvest eliminate post-mortem enzymatic activities and can improve characterization of normal and diseased brain. In addition, metabolomic studies would be improved by reporting absolute units of concentration along with normalized peak areas or fold changes. Then reported values can be evaluated and compared with the extensive neurochemical literature to help prevent reporting of artifactual data.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gerald A Dienel
- Department of Neurology, University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences, Little Rock, AR, USA.,Department of Cell Biology and Physiology, University of New Mexico School of Medicine, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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