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Huang Q, Tang J, Ding Y, Li F. Application and design considerations of ROS-based nanomaterials in diabetic kidney disease. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2024; 15:1351497. [PMID: 38742196 PMCID: PMC11089164 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2024.1351497] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2023] [Accepted: 04/12/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Diabetic nephropathy (DKD) is a common chronic complication of diabetes mellitus and an important cause of cardiovascular-related death. Oxidative stress is a key mechanism leading to diabetic nephropathy. However, the current main therapeutic approach remains combination therapy and lacks specific therapies targeting oxidative stress. With the development of nanotechnology targeting ROS, therapeutic fluids regarding their treatment of diabetic nephropathy have attracted attention. In this review, we provide a brief overview of various ROS-based nanomaterials for DKD, including ROS-scavenging nanomaterials, ROS-associated nanodelivery materials, and ROS-responsive nanomaterials. In addition, we summarize and discuss key factors that should be considered when designing ROS-based nanomaterials, such as biosafety, efficacy, targeting, and detection and monitoring of ROS.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Yunchuan Ding
- Department of Endocrinology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
| | - Fangping Li
- Department of Endocrinology, The Seventh Affiliated Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Shenzhen, China
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Yao L, Liang X, Liu Y, Li B, Hong M, Wang X, Chen B, Liu Z, Wang P. Non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist finerenone ameliorates mitochondrial dysfunction via PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway in diabetic tubulopathy. Redox Biol 2023; 68:102946. [PMID: 37924663 PMCID: PMC10661120 DOI: 10.1016/j.redox.2023.102946] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2023] [Accepted: 10/23/2023] [Indexed: 11/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic tubulopathy (DT) is a recently recognized key pathology of diabetic kidney disease (DKD). The mitochondria-centric view of DT is emerging as a vital pathological factor in different types of metabolic diseases, such as DKD. Finerenone (FIN), a novel non-steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist, attenuates kidney inflammation and fibrosis in DKD, but the precise pathomechanisms remain unclear. The role of mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) in perturbing mitochondrial function via the PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway, including mitochondrial dynamics and mitophagy, was investigated under a diabetic state and high glucose (HG) ambiance. To elucidate how the activation of MR provokes mitochondrial dysfunction in DT, human kidney proximal tubular epithelial (HK-2) cells were exposed to HG, and then mitochondrial dynamics, mitophagy, mitochondrial ROS (mitoROS), signaling molecules PI3K, Akt, Akt phosphorylation and eNOS were probed. The above molecules or proteins were also explored in the kidneys of diabetic and FIN-treated mice. FIN treatment reduced oxidative stress, mitochondrial fragmentation, and apoptosis while restoring the mitophagy via PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway in HK-2 cells exposed to HG ambiance and tubular cells of DM mice. These findings linked MR activation to mitochondrial dysfunction via PI3K/Akt/eNOS signaling pathway in DT and highlight a pivotal but previously undiscovered role of FIN in alleviating renal tubule injury for the treatment of DKD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lan Yao
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China; Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Xianhui Liang
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Yamin Liu
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Bingyu Li
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China; Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Mei Hong
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China; Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Xin Wang
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Bohan Chen
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China; Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China
| | - Zhangsuo Liu
- Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China.
| | - Pei Wang
- Blood Purification Center, Institute of Nephrology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China; Research Institute of Nephrology, Zhengzhou University, Zhengzhou, 450052, China.
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Xue C, Chen K, Gao Z, Bao T, Dong L, Zhao L, Tong X, Li X. Common mechanisms underlying diabetic vascular complications: focus on the interaction of metabolic disorders, immuno-inflammation, and endothelial dysfunction. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:298. [PMID: 37904236 PMCID: PMC10614351 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-01016-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Diabetic vascular complications (DVCs), including macro- and micro- angiopathy, account for a high percentage of mortality in patients with diabetes mellitus (DM). Endothelial dysfunction is the initial and role step for the pathogenesis of DVCs. Hyperglycemia and lipid metabolism disorders contribute to endothelial dysfunction via direct injury of metabolism products, crosstalk between immunity and inflammation, as well as related interaction network. Although physiological and phenotypic differences support their specified changes in different targeted organs, there are still several common mechanisms underlying DVCs. Also, inhibitors of these common mechanisms may decrease the incidence of DVCs effectively. Thus, this review may provide new insights into the possible measures for the secondary prevention of DM. And we discussed the current limitations of those present preventive measures in DVCs research. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chongxiang Xue
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Keyu Chen
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - Zezheng Gao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Department of Endocrinology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China
| | - Tingting Bao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China
- Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, 100029, China
| | - LiShuo Dong
- Changchun University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Changchun, 130117, China
| | - Linhua Zhao
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Xiaolin Tong
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
| | - Xiuyang Li
- Institute of Metabolic Diseases, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, No.5 BeiXianGe Street, Xicheng District, Beijing, 100053, China.
- Department of Endocrinology, Guang'anmen Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, 100053, China.
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Luo X, Xu J, Zhou S, Xue C, Chen Z, Mao Z. Influence of SGLT2i and RAASi and Their Combination on Risk of Hyperkalemia in DKD: A Network Meta-Analysis. Clin J Am Soc Nephrol 2023; 18:1019-1030. [PMID: 37256921 PMCID: PMC10564376 DOI: 10.2215/cjn.0000000000000205] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND This network meta-analysis investigated the effect of various combined regimens of sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors (SGLT2is) and renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors (RAASis) on the occurrence of hyperkalemia in diabetic kidney disease. METHODS The risk of hyperkalemia was compared using the random-effects model of network meta-analysis, with results expressed as odds ratios (ORs) with 95% confidence intervals (CIs). The comparative effects of all medications and their combinations with placebo were ranked using the surface under the cumulative ranking probabilities. RESULTS In total, 27 eligible studies involving 43,589 participants with diabetic kidney disease were included. Major findings showed that the use of mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs) on top of angiotensin-converting enzyme inhibitors (ACEIs) or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) prominently increased hyperkalemia incidence when compared with placebo (OR, 6.08; 95% CI, 2.30 to 16.08), ACEI (OR, 3.07; 95% CI, 1.14 to 8.31), ARB (OR, 2.57; 95% CI, 1.10 to 6.02), SGLT2i (OR, 9.22; 95% CI, 2.99 to 28.46), renin inhibitors+ACEI/ARB (OR, 2.23; 95% CI, 1.14 to 4.36), or SGLT2i+ACEI/ARB (OR, 4.10; 95% CI, 2.32 to 7.26). Subgroup analysis among different generations of MRA found that spironolactone had the strongest effect in combination with ACEI/ARB, even higher than the combined use of ACEI and ARB (OR, 2.89; 95% CI, 1.26 to 6.63). In addition, SGLT2i had a significantly lower incidence of hyperkalemia compared with ACEI (OR, 0.33; 95% CI, 0.12 to 0.91), ARB (OR, 0.28; 95% CI, 0.13 to 0.61), dual RAASi (ACEI combined with ARB; OR, 0.17; 95% CI, 0.06 to 0.47), or MRA or renin inhibitors combined with ACEI/ARB (OR, 0.11; 95% CI, 0.04 to 0.33; OR, 0.24; 95% CI, 0.08 to 0.76, respectively). Moreover, adding SGLT2i to the combination of MRA and ACEI/ARB, as well as the combinations of different RAASis, markedly reduced the occurrence of hyperkalemia. CONCLUSIONS Among the therapeutic drugs with the potential risk of increasing serum potassium in patients with diabetic kidney disease, MRA added an extra risk of hyperkalemia while SGLT2i had the opposite effect and could even reverse the elevation of serum potassium caused by the combined regimen, including MRAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoling Luo
- Division of Nephrology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Xu
- Division of Nephrology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
- State Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Center for Excellence in Molecular Cell Science, Shanghai Institute of Biochemistry and Cell Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shanghai, China
| | - Shoulian Zhou
- Division of Hemodialysis Center, Naval Hospital of Eastern Theater of PLA, Zhoushan, Zhejiang, China
| | - Cheng Xue
- Division of Nephrology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zewei Chen
- Division of Nephrology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhiguo Mao
- Division of Nephrology, Changzheng Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
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Morales J, Handelsman Y. Cardiovascular Outcomes in Patients With Diabetes and Kidney Disease: JACC Review Topic of the Week. J Am Coll Cardiol 2023; 82:161-170. [PMID: 37407115 DOI: 10.1016/j.jacc.2023.04.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2023] [Revised: 04/14/2023] [Accepted: 04/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/07/2023]
Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) and cardiovascular disease (CVD) have a significant inter-relationship in patients with diabetes. Controlling blood pressure, dyslipidemia, and glucose levels is a common treatment approach to managing CVD risk in patients with CKD and diabetes; despite strict control, however, a high residual risk remains. This review focuses on patients who require pharmacotherapy, in whom new and existing cardiorenal therapies (renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system inhibitors, sodium-glucose cotransporter-2 inhibitors, glucagon-like peptide-1 receptor agonists, and nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists) with differing mechanisms of action and safety profiles can reduce cardiovascular risk beyond the outcomes achieved with blood pressure, dyslipidemia, or glycemic control alone. Several treatment guidelines have been updated recently to reflect new evidence. Studies of these cardiorenal agents used in combination are ongoing, and results are awaited with interest, with the hope that potential synergistic effects may lead to further improvements in cardiovascular outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Morales
- Department of Medicine, Donald and Barbara Zucker School of Medicine, Hofstra University, Hempstead, New York, USA.
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Ortiz A, Alcázar Arroyo R, Casado Escribano PP, Fernández-Fernández B, Martínez Debén F, Mediavilla JD, Michan-Doña A, Soler MJ, Gorriz JL. Optimization of potassium management in patients with chronic kidney disease and type 2 diabetes on finerenone. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2023:1-14. [PMID: 37190957 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2023.2213888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Patients with type 2 diabetes (T2DM) and chronic kidney disease (CKD) are at high risk of CKD progression and cardiovascular events. Despite treatment with renin-angiotensin system inhibitors and SGLT-2 inhibitors, the residual risk is substantial. There is preclinical and clinical evidence supporting a key role of mineralocorticoid receptor in cardiorenal injury in T2DM. AREAS COVERED Finerenone is a selective and nonsteroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonist that reduces -on preclinical studies- heart and kidney inflammation and fibrosis. Clinical trials have demonstrated that among patients with T2DM and CKD, finerenone reduces CKD progression and the risk of cardiovascular events. The incidence of adverse events is similar than for placebo. Permanent discontinuation of study drug due to hyperkalemia was low (1.7% of finerenone and 0.6% of placebo participants) as was the risk of hyperkalemia-related severe-adverse events (1.1%). We provide an overview of risk factors for hyperkalemia and management of serum potassium in people with CKD and T2DM on finerenone. EXPERT OPINION As finerenone increases potassium levels in a predictable way, patients at risk of hyperkalemia can be identified early in clinical practice and monitored for an easy management. This will allow people with T2DM and CKD to safely benefit from improved cardiorenal outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Ortiz
- Nephrology and Hypertension Department, IIS-FJD and Hospital Universitario Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Madrid, Spain
| | | | | | - Beatriz Fernández-Fernández
- Nephrology and Hypertension Department, IIS-FJD and Hospital Universitario Fundación Jiménez Díaz, Madrid, Spain
| | - Francisco Martínez Debén
- Internal Medicine Department, Hospital Naval, Complexo Hospitalario Universitario de Ferrol. Departamento de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad de La Coruña, Spain
| | - Juan Diego Mediavilla
- Internal Medicine Department, Instituto de Investigación Biosanitaria ibs, Hospital Universitario Virgen de las Nieves, Granada, Spain
| | - Alfredo Michan-Doña
- Department of Medicine, Hospital Universitario de Jerez, Biomedical Research and Innovation Institute of Cadiz (INiBICA), Cádiz, Spain
| | - Maria Jose Soler
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Universitario Vall d'Hebron, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jose Luis Gorriz
- Nephrology Department, Hospital Clínico Universitario de Valencia, Universidad de Valencia, Valencia, Spain
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Marzolla V, Infante M, Armani A, Rizzo M, Caprio M. Efficacy and safety of finerenone for treatment of diabetic kidney disease: current knowledge and future perspective. Expert Opin Drug Saf 2022; 21:1161-1170. [PMID: 36174659 DOI: 10.1080/14740338.2022.2130889] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) represents a leading cause of morbidity and mortality in subjects with diabetes and develops in more than one third of diabetic patients. Steroidal mineralocorticoid receptor antagonists (MRAs - eplerenone and spironolactone) reduce mortality in patients with heart failure with reduced ejection fraction (HFrEF). However, in clinical practice the use of steroidal MRAs is limited by the significant risk of hyperkalaemia, especially in patients with impaired renal function. Finerenone, a novel nonsteroidal MRA, shows a higher selectivity and binding affinity for mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) compared to steroidal MRAs and has been shown to reduce chronic kidney disease (CKD) progression and cardiovascular mortality in patients with CKD and T2DM. AREAS COVERED This review summarizes the current evidence on efficacy and safety of finerenone in the treatment of patients with CKD and T2DM, and discusses its mechanisms of action investigated in preclinical studies. EXPERT OPINION Pharmacological properties of finerenone and its unique tissue distribution are responsible for a lower risk of hyperkalaemia. Therefore, finerenone represents a valuable therapeutic tool in patients with CKD/diabetic kidney disease (DKD). Recent studies have shown that finerenone delays the progression of CKD and reduce cardiovascular events in patients with DKD, highlighting its safety and efficacy in this high-risk population.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vincenzo Marzolla
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Endocrinology, IRCCS San Raffaele Roma, Rome, Italy
| | - Marco Infante
- Clinical Cell Transplant Program (CCTP), Diabetes Research Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, 1450 NW 10th Ave, Miami, FL 33136, USA.,Diabetes Research Institute Federation (DRIF), Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Via Montpellier 1, Rome 00133, Italy.,UniCamillus, Saint Camillus International University of Health Sciences, Via di Sant'Alessandro 8, Rome 00131, Italy
| | - Andrea Armani
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Endocrinology, IRCCS San Raffaele Roma, Rome, Italy.,Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele Roma Open University, Rome, Italy
| | - Manfredi Rizzo
- Department of Health Promotion, Mother and Child Care, Internal Medicine and Medical Specialties, School of Medicine, University of Palermo, Italy
| | - Massimiliano Caprio
- Laboratory of Cardiovascular Endocrinology, IRCCS San Raffaele Roma, Rome, Italy.,Department of Human Sciences and Promotion of the Quality of Life, San Raffaele Roma Open University, Rome, Italy
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Huang W, Chen YY, Li ZQ, He FF, Zhang C. Recent Advances in the Emerging Therapeutic Strategies for Diabetic Kidney Diseases. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms231810882. [PMID: 36142794 PMCID: PMC9506036 DOI: 10.3390/ijms231810882] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2022] [Revised: 09/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 12/06/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is one of the most common causes of end-stage renal disease worldwide. The treatment of DKD is strongly associated with clinical outcomes in patients with diabetes mellitus. Traditional therapeutic strategies focus on the control of major risk factors, such as blood glucose, blood lipids, and blood pressure. Renin–angiotensin–aldosterone system inhibitors have been the main therapeutic measures in the past, but the emergence of sodium–glucose cotransporter 2 inhibitors, incretin mimetics, and endothelin-1 receptor antagonists has provided more options for the management of DKD. Simultaneously, with advances in research on the pathogenesis of DKD, some new therapies targeting renal inflammation, fibrosis, and oxidative stress have gradually entered clinical application. In addition, some recently discovered therapeutic targets and signaling pathways, mainly in preclinical and early clinical trial stages, are expected to provide benefits for patients with DKD in the future. This review summarizes the traditional treatments and emerging management options for DKD, demonstrating recent advances in the therapeutic strategies for DKD.
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Liu W, Gao Y, Zhou Y, Yu F, Li X, Zhang N. Mechanism of Cordyceps sinensis and its Extracts in the Treatment of Diabetic Kidney Disease: A Review. Front Pharmacol 2022; 13:881835. [PMID: 35645822 PMCID: PMC9136174 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2022.881835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 04/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Diabetic kidney disease (DKD) is the major reason of chronic kidney disease (CKD)-caused end-stage renal failure (ESRF), and leads to high mortality worldwide. At present, the treatment of DKD is mainly focused on controlling the hyperglycemia, proteinuria, and hypertension, but is insufficient on the effective delay of DKD progression. Cordyceps sinensis is a kind of wild-used precious Chinese herb. Its extracts have effects of nephroprotection, hepatoprotection, neuroprotection, and protection against ischemia/reperfusion-induced injury, as well as anti-inflammatory and anti-oxidant activities. According to the theory of traditional Chinese medicine, Cordyceps sinensis can tonify the lung and the kidney. Several Chinese patent medicines produced from Cordyceps sinensis are often used to treat DKD and achieved considerable efficacy. This review summarized the clinical usage of Cordyceps sinensis, as well as its mainly biological activities including anti-hyperglycemic, anti-inflammatory, immunomodulatory, anti-oxidant, anti-fibrotic activities and regulation of apoptosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wu Liu
- Wangjing Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yiwei Gao
- Wangjing Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yi Zhou
- Department of Graduate Student, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Fangning Yu
- Department of Graduate Student, Beijing University of Chinese Medicine, Beijing, China
| | - Xinyi Li
- Wangjing Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Wangjing Hospital, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
- *Correspondence: Ning Zhang,
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Baker WL, Jackevicius CA. Exploring the frontier of cardiovascular pharmacotherapy. Pharmacotherapy 2021; 41:968-969. [PMID: 34923662 DOI: 10.1002/phar.2645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William L Baker
- University of Connecticut School of Pharmacy, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
| | - Cynthia A Jackevicius
- College of Pharmacy, Western University of Health Sciences, Pomona, California, USA.,VA Greater Los Angeles Healthcare System, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Institute of Health Policy, Management, and Evaluation, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.,ICES, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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