Potential Biomarkers for Liver Cancer Diagnosis Based on Multi-Omics Strategy

Liver cancer is the fourth leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) accounts for about 85%-90% of all primary liver malignancies. However, only 20-30% of HCC patients are eligible for curative therapy mainly due to the lack of early-detection strategies, highlighting the significance of reliable and accurate biomarkers. The integration of multi-omics became an important tool for biomarker screening and unique alterations in tumor-associated genes, transcripts, proteins, post-translational modifications and metabolites have been observed. We here summarized the novel biomarkers for HCC diagnosis based on multi-omics technology as well as the clinical significance of these potential biomarkers in the early detection of HCC.

Plectin in Cancer: From Biomarker to Therapeutic Target

The cytolinker and scaffolding protein, plectin, has emerged as a potent driver of malignant hallmarks in many human cancers due to its involvement in various cellular activities contributing to tumorigenesis, including cancer cell proliferation, adhesion, migration, invasion, and signal transduction. Evidence shows that beyond plectin's diverse protein interactome, its cancer-specific mislocalization to the cell surface enables its function as a potent oncoprotein. As such, therapeutic targeting of plectin, its protein interactors, and, in particular, cancer-specific plectin (CSP) presents an attractive opportunity to impede carcinogenesis directly. Here, we report on plectin's differential gene and protein expression in cancer, explore its mutational profile, and discuss the current understanding of plectin's and CSP's biological function in cancer. Moreover, we review the landscape of plectin as a prognostic marker, diagnostic biomarker, and target for imaging and therapeutic modalities. We highlight how, beyond their respective biological importance, plectin's common overexpression in cancer and CSP's cancer-specific bioavailability underscore their potential as high-value druggable targets. We discuss how recent evidence of the potent anti-cancer effects of CSP therapeutic targeting opens the door for cell-surface mislocalized proteins as novel therapeutic targets.

Regulation of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like modifiers by phosphorylation

The regulatory influence of ubiquitin is vast, encompassing all cellular processes, by virtue of its central roles in protein degradation, membrane trafficking, and cell signaling. But how does ubiquitin, a 76 amino acid peptide, carry out such diverse, complex functions in eukaryotic cells? Part of the answer is rooted in the high degree of complexity associated with ubiquitin polymers, which can be 'read' and processed differently depending on topology and cellular context. However, recent evidence indicates that post-translational modifications on ubiquitin itself enhance the complexity of the ubiquitin code. Here, we review recent discoveries related to the regulation of the ubiquitin code by phosphorylation. We summarize what is currently known about phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Ser65, Ser57, and Thr12, and we discuss the potential for phosphoregulation of ubiquitin at other sites. We also discuss accumulating evidence that ubiquitin-like modifiers, such as SUMO, are likewise regulated by phosphorylation. A complete understanding of these regulatory codes and their complex lexicon will require dissection of mechanisms that govern phosphorylation of ubiquitin and ubiquitin-like proteins, particularly in the context of cellular stress and disease.

Ubiquitin Phosphorylation at Thr12 Modulates the DNA Damage Response

The ubiquitin system regulates the DNA damage response (DDR) by modifying histone H2A at Lys15 (H2AK15ub) and triggering downstream signaling events. Here, we find that phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Thr12 (pUbT12) controls the DDR by inhibiting the function of 53BP1, a key factor for DNA double-strand break repair by non-homologous end joining (NHEJ). Detectable as a chromatin modification on H2AK15ub, pUbT12 accumulates in nuclear foci and is increased upon DNA damage. Mutating Thr12 prevents the removal of ubiquitin from H2AK15ub by USP51 deubiquitinating enzyme, leading to a pronounced accumulation of ubiquitinated chromatin. Chromatin modified by pUbT12 is inaccessible to 53BP1 but permissive to the homologous recombination (HR) proteins RNF169, RAD51, and the BRCA1/BARD1 complex. Phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Thr12 in the chromatin context is a new histone mark, H2AK15pUbT12, that regulates the DDR by hampering the activity of 53BP1 at damaged chromosomes.

A Novel Missense Variant in PHF6 Gene Causing Börjeson-Forssman-Lehman Syndrome

Börjeson-Forssman-Lehman Syndrome (BFLS) is a rare X-linked recessive syndrome characterized by intellectual disability, developmental delay, obesity, epilepsy, swelling of the subcutaneous tissues of the face, large but not deformed ears, hypogonadism, and gynecomastia. Pathogenic mutations in PHD finger protein 6 (PHF6) have been reported to cause BFLS. In this study, we describe two male siblings with mild intellectual disability, global developmental delay, short stature, microcephaly, and nyctalopia. Whole exome sequencing of the affected siblings and the parents identified a missense variant (c.413C > G) in the PHF6 gene, which leads to alteration of a serine residue at position 138 to cysteine. This mutation is located in a highly conserved region. Sanger sequencing confirmed the segregation of this mutation in the family in an X-linked recessive fashion. Multiple mass spectrometry-based proteomic studies have reported phosphorylation at serine 138 that describes the possible role of serine 138 in signaling. This novel variant in PHF6 gene helped in establishing a diagnosis of BFLS.

HOIL-1, an atypical E3 ligase that controls MyD88 signalling by forming ester bonds between ubiquitin and components of the Myddosome

Components of bacteria and viruses activate Toll-Like Receptors in host cells, triggering the formation of the Myddosome and a signalling network that culminates in the production and release of the inflammatory mediators required to combat pathogenic infection. The Myddosome initiates signalling by recruiting and activating five E3 ligases that generate hybrid ubiquitin chains and attach them to components of the Myddosome. These ubiquitin chains act as a scaffold for the recruitment and activation of ubiquitin-binding proteins, which include the "master" protein kinases TAK1 and IKKβ that drive inflammatory mediator production, as well as other proteins like ABIN1 and A20 that restrict activation of the network to prevent the overproduction of these substances that can lead to autoimmunity and organ damage. Here we review recent developments in our understanding of this network, focusing on the unexpected discovery that the E3 ligase HOIL-1 initiates the formation of hybrid ubiquitin chains by forming an ester bond between the first ubiquitin and the protein components of the Myddosome.

LC-MS/MS analysis of the dog serum phosphoproteome reveals novel and conserved phosphorylation sites: Phosphoprotein patterns in babesiosis caused by Babesia canis, a case study

Phosphorylation is the most commonly studied protein post-translational modification (PTM) in biological systems due to its importance in controlling cell division, survival, growth, etc. Despite the thorough research in phosphoproteomics of cells and tissues there is little information on circulating phosphoproteins. We compared serum from 10 healthy dogs and 10 dogs affected by B. canis-caused babesiosis with no organ dysfunctions by employing gel-free LC-MS/MS analysis of individual samples and tandem mass tag (TMT) label-based quantitative analyses of pools, both supported by phosphopeptide enrichment. Results showed a moderate number of phosphorylated proteins (50-55), with 89 phosphorylation sites not previously published for dogs although a number of them matched phosphorylation sites found in mammalian orthologs. Three phosphopeptides showed significant variation in babesiosis-affected dog sera compared to controls: Serum amyloid A (SAA) phosphorylated at serine 101 (up-regulation), kininogen 1 phosphorylated at threonine 326, and fibrinogen α phosphorylated at both threonine 20 and serine 22 (down-regulation). 71.9% of the detected phosphorylated sites were phosphoserine, 16.8% phosphothreonine and only 11.2% phosphotyrosine residues. TMT label-based quantitative analysis showed α-2-HS-glycoprotein / Fetuin A to be the most abundant phosphoprotein (50-70% of all phosphoproteins) followed by kininogen-1 (10-20%). The alterations of phosphorylated proteins observed in canine babesiosis caused by Babesia canis suggest new insights into the largely neglected role of extracellular protein phosphorylation in health and disease, encouraging urgent further research on this area. To the best of our knowledge the present study represents the first attempt to characterize canine serum phosphoproteome.

Impact of different ionization states of phosphorylated Serine-65 on ubiquitin structure and interactions

The covalent attachment of ubiquitin (Ub) or Ub chains to cellular proteins is a versatile post-translational modification involved in a variety of eukaryotic cellular events. Recently, the post-translational modification of Ub itself by phosphorylation has emerged as an important component of the Ub-signaling system. Specifically, Ub phosphorylation at serine-65 was shown to activate parkin-mediated mitochondrial quality control. However, the impact of phosphorylation on Ub structure and interactions is poorly understood. Here we investigate the recently reported structural changes in Ub upon serine-65 phosphorylation, namely, the equilibrium between a native-like and a novel, alternate conformer of phosphorylated Ub (pUb). We show that this equilibrium is pH-dependent, and the two pUb conformers are linked to the different charge states of the phosphate group. We examined pUb binding to a known Ub-receptor and found that the alternate conformer is binding incompetent. Furthermore, serine-65 phosphorylation affects the conformational equilibrium of K48-linked Ub dimers. Lastly, our crystal structure of S65D Ub and NMR data indicate that phosphomimetic mutations do not adequately reproduce the salient features of pUb. Our results suggest that the pH-dependence of the conformations and binding properties of phosphorylated Ub and polyUb could provide an additional level of modulation in Ub-mediated signaling.

Non-alcoholic fatty liver disease phosphoproteomics: A functional piece of the precision puzzle

BACKGROUND

Molecular signaling events associated with the necroinflammatory changes in nonalcoholic steatohepatitis (NASH) are not well understood.

AIMS

To understand the molecular basis of NASH, we evaluated reversible phosphorylation events in hepatic tissue derived from Class III obese subjects by phosphoproteomic means with the aim of highlighting key regulatory pathways that distinguish NASH from non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (also known as simple steatosis; SS).

MATERIALS & METHODS

Class III obese subjects undergoing bariatric surgery underwent liver biopsy (eight normal patients, eight with simple steatosis, and eight NASH patients). Our strategy was unbiased, comparing global differences in liver protein reversible phosphorylation events across the 24 subjects.

RESULTS

Of the 3078 phosphorylation sites assigned (2465 phosphoserine, 445 phosphothreonine, 165 phosphotyrosine), 53 were altered by a factor of 2 among cohorts, and of those, 12 were significantly increased or decreased by ANOVA (P < 0.05).

DISCUSSION

Statistical analyses of canonical signaling pathways identified carbohydrate metabolism and RNA post-transcriptional modification among the most over-represented networks.

CONCLUSION

Collectively, these results raise the possibility of abnormalities in carbohydrate metabolism as an important trigger for the development of NASH, in parallel with already established abnormalities in lipid metabolism.

Proteomic profiling of retinoblastoma by high resolution mass spectrometry

Background

Retinoblastoma is an ocular neoplastic cancer caused primarily due to the mutation/deletion of RB1 gene. Due to the rarity of the disease very limited information is available on molecular changes in primary retinoblastoma. High throughput analysis of retinoblastoma transcriptome is available however the proteomic landscape of retinoblastoma remains unexplored. In the present study we used high resolution mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomics to identify proteins associated with pathogenesis of retinoblastoma.

Methods

We used five pooled normal retina and five pooled retinoblastoma tissues to prepare tissue lysates. Equivalent amount of proteins from each group was trypsin digested and labeled with iTRAQ tags. The samples were analyzed on Orbitrap Velos mass spectrometer. We further validated few of the differentially expressed proteins by immunohistochemistry on primary tumors.

Results

We identified and quantified a total of 3587 proteins in retinoblastoma when compared with normal adult retina. In total, we identified 899 proteins that were differentially expressed in retinoblastoma with a fold change of ≥2 of which 402 proteins were upregulated and 497 were down regulated. Insulin growth factor 2 mRNA binding protein 1 (IGF2BP1), chromogranin A, fetuin A (ASHG), Rac GTPase-activating protein 1 and midkine that were found to be overexpressed in retinoblastoma were further confirmed by immunohistochemistry by staining 15 independent retinoblastoma tissue sections. We further verified the effect of IGF2BP1 on cell proliferation and migration capability of a retinoblastoma cell line using knockdown studies.

Conclusions

In the present study mass spectrometry-based quantitative proteomic approach was applied to identify proteins differentially expressed in retinoblastoma tumor. This study identified the mitochondrial dysfunction and lipid metabolism pathways as the major pathways to be deregulated in retinoblastoma. Further knockdown studies of IGF2BP1 in retinoblastoma cell lines revealed it as a prospective therapeutic target for retinoblastoma.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12014-016-9128-7) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

A Cyclin D2-derived peptide acts on specific cell cycle phases by activating ERK1/2 to cause the death of breast cancer cells

Protein degradation by the proteasome generates functional intracellular peptides. Pep5, a peptide derived from Cyclin D2, induces cell death in tumor cell lines and reduces the volume of rat C6 glioblastoma tumors in vivo. Here, we chose the human MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells to evaluate the mechanism of cell death induced by pep5 in different phases of the cell cycle. Fluorescently labeled pep5, monitored by real time confocal microscopy, entered the MDA-MB-231 cells 3min after application and localized to the nucleus and cytoplasm. Pep5-induced cell death was increased when the MDA-MB-231 cell population was arrested at the G1/S transition or in S phase compared to asynchronous cells. Pep5 induced permanent extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK1/2) phosphorylation in MDA-MB-231 cells synchronized in G1/S or S phase. Affinity chromatography followed by mass spectrometry identified CLIC1 and Plectin as the only two proteins that interacted with pep5 in both asynchronous and synchronized MDA-MB-231 cells. These interactions could explain the long-lasting ERK1/2 phosphorylation and the cytoskeleton perturbations in the MDA-MB-231 cells, in which the stress fibers' integrity is affected by pep5 treatments. These data suggest that pep5 has potential therapeutic properties for treating specific types of cancers, such as breast cancer cells.

BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Pep5, a natural intracellular peptide formed by the degradation of Cyclin D2 through the ubiquitin-proteasome system, induces cell death when reintroduced into MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells, which express low levels of Cyclin D2, specifically in G1/S arrested cells or in cells that are passing through S phase. Under these conditions, pep5 is able to interact with different intracellular proteins, primarily cytoskeleton and proteasome components, which can lead to cellular apoptosis. Together, our data suggest that pep5 is an intracellular peptide with therapeutic potential for treating specific types of tumors with low expression of Cyclin D2 by inhibiting cell proliferation.

Ubiquitin modifications

Protein ubiquitination is a dynamic multifaceted post-translational modification involved in nearly all aspects of eukaryotic biology. Once attached to a substrate, the 76-amino acid protein ubiquitin is subjected to further modifications, creating a multitude of distinct signals with distinct cellular outcomes, referred to as the 'ubiquitin code'. Ubiquitin can be ubiquitinated on seven lysine (Lys) residues or on the N-terminus, leading to polyubiquitin chains that can encompass complex topologies. Alternatively or in addition, ubiquitin Lys residues can be modified by ubiquitin-like molecules (such as SUMO or NEDD8). Finally, ubiquitin can also be acetylated on Lys, or phosphorylated on Ser, Thr or Tyr residues, and each modification has the potential to dramatically alter the signaling outcome. While the number of distinctly modified ubiquitin species in cells is mind-boggling, much progress has been made to characterize the roles of distinct ubiquitin modifications, and many enzymes and receptors have been identified that create, recognize or remove these ubiquitin modifications. We here provide an overview of the various ubiquitin modifications present in cells, and highlight recent progress on ubiquitin chain biology. We then discuss the recent findings in the field of ubiquitin acetylation and phosphorylation, with a focus on Ser65-phosphorylation and its role in mitophagy and Parkin activation.

The Ball and Chain of Polyubiquitin Structures

Ubiquitylation is a post-translational modification implicated in several different cellular pathways. The possibility of forming chains through covalent crosslinking between any of the seven lysines, or the initial methionine, and the C terminus of another moiety provides ubiquitin (Ub) with special flexibility in its function in signalling. Here, we review the knowledge accumulated over the past several years about the functions and structural features of polyUb chains. This analysis reveals the need to understand further the functional role of some of the linkages and the structural code that determines recognition of polyUbs by protein partners.

Proteomic techniques to probe the ubiquitin landscape

Protein ubiquitination is a powerful modulator of cellular functions. Classically linked to the degradation of proteins, it also plays a role in intracellular localization, DNA damage response, vesicle fusion events, and the immune and transcriptional responses. Ubiquitin is versatile and can code for several distinct signals, either by adding a single ubiquitin or forming a chain of ubiquitins on the target protein. The enzymatic cascade associated with the cellular process determines the nature of the modification. Numerous efforts have been made for the identification of ubiquitin acceptor sites in the target proteins using genetic, biochemical or MS-based proteomic methods, such as affinity-based enrichment of ubiquitinated proteins, and antibody-based enrichment of modified peptides. Modern instrumentation enables quantitative MS strategies to identify and characterize hundreds of ubiquitin substrates in a single analysis making it the dominant method for ubiquitin site detection. Characterization of the interubiquitin connectivity in ubiquitin polymers has also moved into focus, with the field of targeted proteomics techniques proving invaluable for identifying and quantifying linkage types found in such polyubiquitin chains. This review seeks to provide an overview of the many MS-based proteomics techniques available for exploring this dynamic field.

Expanding the ubiquitin code through post-translational modification

Ubiquitylation is among the most prevalent post-translational modifications (PTMs) and regulates numerous cellular functions. Interestingly, ubiquitin (Ub) can be itself modified by other PTMs, including acetylation and phosphorylation. Acetylation of Ub on K6 and K48 represses the formation and elongation of Ub chains. Phosphorylation of Ub happens on multiple sites, S57 and S65 being the most frequently modified in yeast and mammalian cells, respectively. In mammals, the PINK1 kinase activates ubiquitin ligase Parkin by phosphorylating S65 of Ub and of the Parkin Ubl domain, which in turn promotes the amplification of autophagy signals necessary for the removal of damaged mitochondria. Similarly, TBK1 phosphorylates the autophagy receptors OPTN and p62 to initiate feedback and feedforward programs for Ub-dependent removal of protein aggregates, mitochondria and pathogens (such as Salmonella and Mycobacterium tuberculosis). The impact of PINK1-mediated phosphorylation of Ub and TBK1-dependent phosphorylation of autophagy receptors (OPTN and p62) has been recently linked to the development of Parkinson's disease and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, respectively. Hence, the post-translational modification of Ub and its receptors can efficiently expand the Ub code and modulate its functions in health and disease.

A Versatile Strategy for the Semisynthetic Production of Ser65 Phosphorylated Ubiquitin and Its Biochemical and Structural Characterisation

Ubiquitin phosphorylation is emerging as an important regulatory layer in the ubiquitin system. This is exemplified by the phosphorylation of ubiquitin on Ser65 by the Parkinson's disease-associated kinase PINK1, which mediates the activation of the E3 ligase Parkin. Additional phosphorylation sites on ubiquitin might also have important cellular roles. Here we report a versatile strategy for preparing phosphorylated ubiquitin. We biochemically and structurally characterise semisynthetic phospho-Ser65-ubiquitin. Unexpectedly, we observed disulfide bond formation between ubiquitin molecules, and hence a novel crystal form. The method outlined provides a direct approach to study the combinatorial effects of phosphorylation on ubiquitin function. Our analysis also suggests that disulfide engineering of ubiquitin could be a useful strategy for obtaining alternative crystal forms of ubiquitin species thereby facilitating structural validation.

Phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Ser65 affects its polymerization, targets, and proteome-wide turnover

Ubiquitylation is an essential post-translational modification that regulates numerous cellular processes, most notably protein degradation. Ubiquitin can itself be phosphorylated at nearly every serine, threonine, and tyrosine residue. However, the effect of this modification on ubiquitin function is largely unknown. Here, we characterized the effects of phosphorylation of yeast ubiquitin at serine 65 in vivo and in vitro. We find this post-translational modification to be regulated under oxidative stress, occurring concomitantly with the restructuring of the ubiquitin landscape into a highly polymeric state. Phosphomimetic mutation of S65 recapitulates the oxidative stress phenotype, causing a dramatic accumulation of ubiquitylated proteins and a proteome-wide reduction of protein turnover rates. Importantly, this mutation impacts ubiquitin chain disassembly, chain linkage distribution, ubiquitin interactions, and substrate targeting. These results demonstrate that phosphorylation is an additional mode of ubiquitin regulation with broad implications in cellular physiology.

Phosphoproteomic analysis of the highly-metastatic hepatocellular carcinoma cell line, MHCC97-H

Invasion and metastasis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is a major cause for lethal liver cancer. Signaling pathways associated with cancer progression are frequently reconfigured by aberrant phosphorylation of key proteins. To capture the key phosphorylation events in HCC metastasis, we established a methodology by an off-line high-pH HPLC separation strategy combined with multi-step IMAC and LC–MS/MS to study the phosphoproteome of a metastatic HCC cell line, MHCC97-H (high metastasis). In total, 6593 phosphopeptides with 6420 phosphorylation sites (p-sites) of 2930 phosphoproteins were identified. Statistical analysis of gene ontology (GO) categories for the identified phosphoproteins showed that several of the biological processes, such as transcriptional regulation, mRNA processing and RNA splicing, were over-represented. Further analysis of Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) annotations demonstrated that phosphoproteins in multiple pathways, such as spliceosome, the insulin signaling pathway and the cell cycle, were significantly enriched. In particular, we compared our dataset with a previously published phosphoproteome in a normal liver sample, and the results revealed that a number of proteins in the spliceosome pathway, such as U2 small nuclear RNA Auxiliary Factor 2 (U2AF2), Eukaryotic Initiation Factor 4A-III (EIF4A3), Cell Division Cycle 5-Like (CDC5L) and Survival Motor Neuron Domain Containing 1 (SMNDC1), were exclusively identified as phosphoproteins only in the MHCC97-H cell line. These results indicated that the phosphorylation of spliceosome proteins may participate in the metastasis of HCC by regulating mRNA processing and RNA splicing.

Ectokinases as novel cancer markers and drug targets in cancer therapy

While small-molecule kinase inhibitors became the most prominent anticancer drugs, novel combinatorial strategies need to be developed as the fight against cancer is not yet won. We review emerging literature showing that the release of several ectokinases is significantly upregulated in body fluids from cancer patients and that they leave behind their unique signatures on extracellular matrix (ECM) proteins. Our analysis of proteomic data reveals that fibronectin is heavily phosphorylated in cancer tissues particularly within its growth factor binding sites and on domains that regulate fibrillogenesis. We are thus making the case that cancer is not only a disease of cells but also of the ECM. Targeting extracellular kinases or the extracellular signatures they leave behind might thus create novel opportunities in cancer diagnosis as well as new avenues to interfere with cancer progression and malignancy.

In situ sample processing approach (iSPA) for comprehensive quantitative phosphoproteome analysis

Current sample preparation protocols for quantitative phosphoproteome analysis are tedious and time-consuming. Here, a facile in situ sample processing approach (iSPA) is developed by using macroporous Ti(IV)-IMAC microspheres as the preparation "beds", where all sample preparation procedures including the enrichment of phosphoproteins, tryptic digestion of proteins, enrichment, and isotope labeling of phosphopeptides are performed in situ sequentially. As a result of the in situ processing design and the seamless procedures, extra steps for desalting and buffer exchanging, which are always required in conventional approaches, are avoided, and the sample loss and contamination could be greatly reduced. Thus, better sensitivity and accuracy for the quantitative phosphoproteome analysis were obtained. This strategy was further applied to differential phosphoproteome analysis of human liver tissues with or without hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). In total, 8548 phosphorylation sites were confidently quantified from three replicate analyses of 0.5 mg of human liver protein extracts.

Parkin is activated by PINK1-dependent phosphorylation of ubiquitin at Ser65

We have previously reported that the Parkinson's disease-associated kinase PINK1 (PTEN-induced putative kinase 1) is activated by mitochondrial depolarization and stimulates the Parkin E3 ligase by phosphorylating Ser⁶⁵ within its Ubl (ubiquitin-like) domain. Using phosphoproteomic analysis, we identified a novel ubiquitin phosphopeptide phosphorylated at Ser⁶⁵ that was enriched 14-fold in HEK (human embryonic kidney)-293 cells overexpressing wild-type PINK1 stimulated with the mitochondrial uncoupling agent CCCP (carbonyl cyanide m-chlorophenylhydrazone), to activate PINK1, compared with cells expressing kinase-inactive PINK1. Ser⁶⁵ in ubiquitin lies in a similar motif to Ser⁶⁵ in the Ubl domain of Parkin. Remarkably, PINK1 directly phosphorylates Ser⁶⁵ of ubiquitin in vitro. We undertook a series of experiments that provide striking evidence that Ser⁶⁵-phosphorylated ubiquitin (ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65}) functions as a critical activator of Parkin. First, we demonstrate that a fragment of Parkin lacking the Ubl domain encompassing Ser⁶⁵ (ΔUbl-Parkin) is robustly activated by ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65}, but not by non-phosphorylated ubiquitin. Secondly, we find that the isolated Parkin Ubl domain phosphorylated at Ser⁶⁵ (Ubl^{Phospho−Ser65}) can also activate ΔUbl-Parkin similarly to ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65}. Thirdly, we establish that ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65}, but not non-phosphorylated ubiquitin or Ubl^{Phospho−Ser65}, activates full-length wild-type Parkin as well as the non-phosphorylatable S65A Parkin mutant. Fourthly, we provide evidence that optimal activation of full-length Parkin E3 ligase is dependent on PINK1-mediated phosphorylation of both Parkin at Ser⁶⁵ and ubiquitin at Ser⁶⁵, since only mutation of both proteins at Ser⁶⁵ completely abolishes Parkin activation. In conclusion, the findings of the present study reveal that PINK1 controls Parkin E3 ligase activity not only by phosphorylating Parkin at Ser⁶⁵, but also by phosphorylating ubiquitin at Ser⁶⁵. We propose that phosphorylation of Parkin at Ser⁶⁵ serves to prime the E3 ligase enzyme for activation by ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65}, suggesting that small molecules that mimic ubiquitin^{Phospho−Ser65} could hold promise as novel therapies for Parkinson's disease.

We describe a novel and unexpected mechanism by which PINK1 protein kinase activates Parkin E3 ligase. We show that PINK1 phosphorylates ubiquitin at Ser⁶⁵ and that phosphorylated ubiquitin acts as a direct activator of Parkin.

PINK1 phosphorylates ubiquitin to activate Parkin E3 ubiquitin ligase activity

PINK1 phosphorylates ubiquitin, which then binds to Parkin and activates its E3 ligase activity, leading to induction of selective autophagy of damaged mitochondria.

PINK1 kinase activates the E3 ubiquitin ligase Parkin to induce selective autophagy of damaged mitochondria. However, it has been unclear how PINK1 activates and recruits Parkin to mitochondria. Although PINK1 phosphorylates Parkin, other PINK1 substrates appear to activate Parkin, as the mutation of all serine and threonine residues conserved between Drosophila and human, including Parkin S65, did not wholly impair Parkin translocation to mitochondria. Using mass spectrometry, we discovered that endogenous PINK1 phosphorylated ubiquitin at serine 65, homologous to the site phosphorylated by PINK1 in Parkin’s ubiquitin-like domain. Recombinant TcPINK1 directly phosphorylated ubiquitin and phospho-ubiquitin activated Parkin E3 ubiquitin ligase activity in cell-free assays. In cells, the phosphomimetic ubiquitin mutant S65D bound and activated Parkin. Furthermore, expression of ubiquitin S65A, a mutant that cannot be phosphorylated by PINK1, inhibited Parkin translocation to damaged mitochondria. These results explain a feed-forward mechanism of PINK1-mediated initiation of Parkin E3 ligase activity.

Profiling serologic biomarkers in cirrhotic patients via high-throughput Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy: toward a new diagnostic tool of hepatocellular carcinoma

Identification of novel serum biomarkers of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is needed for early-stage disease detection and to improve patients' survival. The aim of this study was to evaluate the potential of serum Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy for differentiating sera from cirrhotic patients with and without HCC. Serum samples were collected from 2 sets of patients: cirrhotic patients with HCC (n = 39) and without HCC (n = 40). The FTIR spectra (10 per sample) were acquired in the transmission mode, and data homogeneity was tested by cluster analysis to exclude outliers. After data preprocessing by extended multiplicative signal correction and principal component analysis, the Support Vector Machine (SVM) method was applied using a leave-one-out cross-validation algorithm to classify the spectra into 2 classes of cirrhotic patients with and without HCC. When SVM was applied to all spectra (n = 790), the sensitivity and the specificity for the diagnosis of HCC were, respectively, 82.02% and 82.5%. When applied to the subset of spectra excluding the outliers (n = 739), SVM classification led to a sensitivity and specificity of 87.18% and 85%, respectively. Using median spectra for each patient instead of all replicates, the sensitivity and specificity were 84.62% and 82.50%, respectively. The overall accuracy rate was 82%-86%. In conclusion, this study suggests that FTIR spectroscopy combined with advanced methods of pattern analysis shows potential for differentiating sera from cirrhotic patients with and without HCC.

Hepatocellular carcinoma: a systems biology perspective

Hepatocellular carcinomas (HCCs) have different etiology and heterogenic genomic alterations lead to high complexity. The molecular features of HCC have largely been studied by gene expression and proteome profiling focusing on the correlations between the expression of specific markers and clinical data. Integration of the increasing amounts of data in databases has facilitated the link of genomic and proteomic profiles of HCC to disease state and clinical outcome. Despite the current knowledge, specific molecular markers remain to be identified and new strategies are required to establish novel-targeted therapies. In the last years, mathematical models reconstructing gene and protein networks based on experimental data of HCC have been developed providing powerful tools to predict candidate interactions and potential targets for therapy. Furthermore, the combination of dynamic and logical mathematical models with quantitative data allows detailed mechanistic insights into system properties. To address effects at the organ level, mathematical models reconstructing the three-dimensional organization of liver lobules were developed. In the future, integration of different modeling approaches capturing the effects at the cellular up to the organ level is required to address the complex properties of HCC and to enable the discovery of new targets for HCC prevention or treatment.

SILAC in biomarker discovery

Stable isotope labeling with amino acids in cell culture (SILAC) has become an extremely valuable tool in quantitative proteomics and in biomarker discovery. Incorporation of SILAC labels occurs when cells are passaged multiple times in media where the endogenous amino acids are replaced with the heavy isotope ones. During a typical experiment, cells from heavy and light strains are combined in equal ratios and all steps of protein extraction and digestion occur on these cells together, minimizing the number of external variables introduced during sample processing. Potential biomarkers are revealed during liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis by peptides that differ considerably in intensity between the two strains as revealed by the mass shift from the incorporated SILAC label. The protocol presented here describes how to perform a typical experiment using the SILAC technology for the search for biomarkers as revealed by differences in protein expression levels, as well as by phosphorylation, a common posttranslational modification.

The application of quantification techniques in proteomics for biomedical research

The systematic analysis of biological processes requires an understanding of the quantitative expression patterns of proteins, their interacting partners and their subcellular localization. This information was formerly difficult to accrue as the relative quantification of proteins relied on antibody-based methods and other approaches with low throughput. The advent of soft ionization techniques in mass spectrometry plus advances in separation technologies has aligned protein systems biology with messenger RNA, DNA, and microarray technologies to provide data on systems as opposed to singular protein entities. Another aspect of quantitative proteomics that increases its importance for the coming few years is the significant technical developments underway both for high pressure liquid chromatography and mass spectrum devices. Hence, robustness, reproducibility and mass accuracy are still improving with every new generation of instruments. Nonetheless, the methods employed require validation and comparison to design fit for purpose experiments in advanced protein analyses. This review considers the newly developed systematic protein investigation methods and their value from the standpoint that relative or absolute protein quantification is required de rigueur in biomedical research.

Extracellular phosphorylation and phosphorylated proteins: not just curiosities but physiologically important

Mining of the literature and high-throughput mass spectrometry data from both healthy and diseased tissues and from body fluids reveals evidence that various extracellular proteins can exist in phosphorylated states. Extracellular kinases and phosphatases (ectokinases and ectophosphatases) are active in extracellular spaces during times of sufficiently high concentrations of adenosine triphosphate. There is evidence for a role of extracellular phosphorylation in various physiological functions, including blood coagulation, immune cell activation, and the formation of neuronal networks. Ectokinase activity is increased in some diseases, including cancer, Alzheimer's disease, and some microbial infections. We summarize the literature supporting the physiological and pathological roles of extracellularly localized protein kinases, protein phosphatases, and phosphorylated proteins and provide an analysis of the available mass spectrometry data to annotate potential extracellular phosphorylated proteins.

Potential plasma biomarkers for progression of knee osteoarthritis using glycoproteomic analysis coupled with a 2D-LC-MALDI system

Background

Although osteoarthritis (OA) is a highly prevalent joint disease, to date, no reliable biomarkers have been found for the disease. In this study, we attempted to identify factors the amounts of which significantly change in association with the progression of knee OA.

Methods

A total of 68 subjects with primary knee OA were enrolled in the study. These subjects were followed up over an 18-month period, and plasma and serum samples were obtained together with knee radiographs every 6 months, i.e., 0, 6, 12 and 18 months after the enrollment. Progressors and non-progressors were determined from the changes on radiographs, and plasma samples from those subjects were subjected to N-glycoproteomic 2D-LC-MALDI analysis. MS peaks were identified, and intensities for respective peaks were compared between the progressors and non-progressors to find the peak intensities of which differed significantly between the two groups of subjects. Proteins represented by the chosen peaks were identified by MS/MS analysis. Expression of the identified proteins was evaluated in synovial tissues from 10 OA knee joints by in situ hybridization, western blotting analysis and ELISA.

Results

Among the subjects involved in the study, 3 subjects were determined to be progressors, and 6 plasma and serum samples from these subjects were subjected to the analysis together with another 6 samples from the non-progressors. More than 3000 MS peaks were identified by N-glycoproteomic 2D-LC-MALDI analysis. Among them, 4 peaks were found to have significantly different peak intensities between the progressors and non-progressors. MS/MS analysis revealed that these peaks represented clusterin, hemopexin, alpha-1 acid glycoprotein-2, and macrophage stimulating protein, respectively. The expression of these genes in OA synovium was confirmed by in situ hybridization, and for clusterin and hemopexin, by western blotting analysis and ELISA as well.

Conclusions

In this study, 4 potential biomarkers were identified as potential prognostic markers for knee OA through N-glycoproteomic analysis. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first report for the use of glycoproteomic technology in exploring potential biomarkers for knee OA.

MNK2 inhibits eIF4G activation through a pathway involving serine-arginine-rich protein kinase in skeletal muscle

Skeletal muscle mass is regulated by activity, metabolism, and the availability of nutrients. During muscle atrophy, MNK2 expression increases. We found that MNK2 (mitogen-activated protein kinase-interacting kinase 2), but not MNK1, inhibited proteins involved in promoting protein synthesis, including eukaryotic translation initiation factor 4G (eIF4G) and mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR). Phosphorylation at serine 1108 (Ser¹¹⁰⁸) of eIF4G, which is associated with enhanced protein translation, is promoted by insulin-like growth factor 1 and inhibited by rapamycin or starvation, suggesting that phosphorylation of this residue is regulated by mTOR. In cultured myotubes, small interfering RNA (siRNA) knockdown of MNK2 increased eIF4G Ser¹¹⁰⁸ phosphorylation and overcame rapamycin's inhibitory effect on this phosphorylation event. Phosphorylation of Ser¹¹⁰⁸ in eIF4G, in gastrocnemius muscle, was increased in mice lacking MNK2, but not those lacking MNK1, and this increased phosphorylation was maintained in MNK2-null animals under atrophy conditions and upon starvation. Conversely, overexpression of MNK2 decreased eIF4G Ser¹¹⁰⁸ phosphorylation. An siRNA screen revealed that serine-arginine-rich protein kinases linked increased MNK2 activity to decreased eIF4G phosphorylation. In addition, we found that MNK2 interacted with mTOR and inhibited phosphorylation of the mTOR target, the ribosomal kinase p70S6K (70-kD ribosomal protein S6 kinase), through a mechanism independent of the kinase activity of MNK2. These data indicate that MNK2 plays a unique role, not shared by its closest paralog MNK1, in limiting protein translation through its negative effect on eIF4G Ser¹¹⁰⁸ phosphorylation and p70S6K activation.

Differential gel-based proteomic approach for cancer biomarker discovery using human plasma

Two-dimensional fluorescence difference gel electrophoresis (2D DIGE) has become a general platform for analysis of various clinical samples such as biofluids and tissues. In comparison to conventional 2-D polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (2D PAGE), 2D DIGE offers several advantages, such as accuracy and reproducibility between experiments, which facilitate spot-to-spot comparisons. Although whole plasma can be easily obtained, the complexity of plasma samples makes it challenging to analyze samples with good reproducibility. Here, we describe a method for decreasing protein complexity in plasma samples within a narrow pH range by depleting high-abundance plasma proteins. In combination with analysis of differentially expressed spots, trypsin digestion, identification of protein by mass spectrometry, and standard 2D PAGE and DIGE, this method has been optimized for comparison of plasma samples from healthy donors and patients diagnosed with hepatocellular carcinoma.

Improvement of the quantification accuracy and throughput for phosphoproteome analysis by a pseudo triplex stable isotope dimethyl labeling approach

Accurately quantifying the changes of phosphorylation level on specific sites is crucial to understand the role of protein phosphorylation in physiological and pathological processes. Here, a pseudo triplex stable isotope dimethyl labeling approach was developed to improve the accuracy and the throughput of comprehensive quantitative phosphoproteome analyses. In this strategy, two identical samples are labeled with light and heavy isotopes, respectively, while another comparative sample is labeled with an intermediate isotope. Two replicated quantification results were achieved in just one experiment, and the relative standard deviation (RSD) criterion was used to control the quantification accuracy. Compared with the conventional duplex labeling approach, the number of quantified phosphopeptides increased nearly 50% and the experimental time was reduced by 50% under the same quantification accuracy. Combined with the automated online reversed phase-strong cation exchange-reversed phase (RP-SCX-RP) multidimensional separation system, a comparative phosphoproteome analysis of hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) and normal human liver tissues was performed. Over 1800 phosphopeptides corresponding to ~2000 phosphorylation sites were quantified reliably in a 42 h multidimensional analysis. The pro-directed motifs, which were mainly associated with the extracellular signal-regulated kinases (ERKs), were observed as being overrepresented in the regulated phosphorylation sites, and some quantification results of phosphorylation sites were validated by the other studies. Therefore, this pseudo triplex labeling approach was demonstrated as a promising alternative for the comprehensive quantitative phosphoproteome analysis.

Development of quantitative plasma N-glycoproteomics using label-free 2-D LC-MALDI MS and its applicability for biomarker discovery in hepatocellular carcinoma

There has been rapid progress in the development of clinical proteomic methodologies with improvements in mass spectrometric technologies and bioinformatics, leading to many new methodologies for biomarker discovery from human plasma. However, it is not easy to find new biomarkers because of the wide dynamic range of plasma proteins and the need for their quantification. Here, we report a new methodology for relative quantitative proteomic analysis combining large-scale glycoproteomics with label-free 2-D LC-MALDI MS. In this method, enrichment of glycopeptides using hydrazide resin enables focusing on plasma proteins with lower abundance corresponding to the tissue leakage region. On quantitative analysis, signal intensities by 2-D LC-MALDI MS were normalized using a peptide internal control, and the values linked to LC data were treated with DeView™ software. Our proteomic method revealed that the quantitative dynamic ranged from 10² to 10⁶ pg/mL of plasma proteins with good reproducibility, and the limit of detection was of the order of a few ng/mL of proteins in biological samples. To evaluate the applicability of our method for biomarker discovery, we performed a feasibility study using plasma samples from patients with hepatocellular carcinoma, and identified biomarker candidates, including ceruloplasmin, alpha-1 antichymotrypsin, and multimerin-1.

A new versatile peptide-based size exclusion chromatography platform for global profiling and quantitation of candidate biomarkers in hepatocellular carcinoma specimens

Disease biomarkers are predicted to be in low abundance; thus, the most crucial step of biomarker discovery is the efficient fractionation of clinical samples into protein sets that define disease stages and/or predict disease development. For this purpose, we developed a new platform that uses peptide-based size exclusion chromatography (pep-SEC) to quantify disease biomarker candidates. This new platform has many advantages over previously described biomarker profiling platforms, including short run time, high resolution, and good reproducibility, which make it suitable for large-scale analysis. We combined this platform with isotope labeling and label-free methods to identify and quantitate differentially expressed proteins in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) tissues. When we combined pep-SEC with a gas phase fractionation method, which broadens precursor ion selection, the protein coverage was significantly increased, which is critical for the global profiling of HCC specimens. Furthermore, pep-SEC-LC-MS/MS analysis enhanced the detection of low-abundance proteins (e.g. insulin receptor substrate 2 and carboxylesterase 1) and glycopeptides in HCC plasma. Thus, our pep-SEC platform is an efficient and versatile pre-fractionation system for the large-scale profiling and quantitation of candidate biomarkers in complex disease proteomes.

Analytical strategies in mass spectrometry-based phosphoproteomics

Phosphoproteomics, the systematic study of protein phosphorylation events and cell signaling networks in cells and tissues, is a rapidly evolving branch of functional proteomics. Current phosphoproteomics research provides a large toolbox of strategies and protocols that may assist researchers to reveal key regulatory events and phosphorylation-mediated processes in the cell and in whole organisms. We present an overview of sensitive and robust analytical methods for phosphopeptide analysis, including calcium phosphate precipitation and affinity enrichment methods such as IMAC and TiO(2). We then discuss various tandem mass spectrometry approaches for phosphopeptide sequencing and quantification, and we consider aspects of phosphoproteome data analysis and interpretation. Efficient integration of these stages of phosphoproteome analysis is highly important to ensure a successful outcome of large-scale experiments for studies of phosphorylation-mediated protein regulation.

Clinical proteomics for liver disease: a promising approach for discovery of novel biomarkers

Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the fifth most common cancer and advanced hepatic fibrosis is a major risk factor for HCC. Hepatic fibrosis including liver cirrhosis and HCC are mainly induced by persistent hepatitis B or C virus infection, with approximately 500 million people infected with hepatitis B or C virus worldwide. Furthermore, the number of patients with non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) has recently increased and NAFLD can progress to cirrhosis and HCC. These chronic liver diseases are major causes of morbidity and mortality, and the identification of non-invasive biomarkers is important for early diagnosis. Recent advancements in quantitative and large-scale proteomic methods could be used to optimize the clinical application of biomarkers. Early diagnosis of HCC and assessment of the stage of hepatic fibrosis or NAFLD can also contribute to more effective therapeutic interventions and an improve prognosis. Furthermore, advancements of proteomic techniques contribute not only to the discovery of clinically useful biomarkers, but also in clarifying the molecular mechanisms of disease pathogenesis by using body fluids, such as serum, and tissue samples and cultured cells. In this review, we report recent advances in quantitative proteomics and several findings focused on liver diseases, including HCC, NAFLD, hepatic fibrosis and hepatitis B or C virus infections.

Phosphoproteomics for the masses

Protein phosphorylation serves as a primary mechanism of signal transduction in the cells of biological organisms. Technical advancements over the last several years in mass spectrometry now allow for the large-scale identification and quantitation of in vivo phosphorylation at unprecedented levels. These developments have occurred in the areas of sample preparation, instrumentation, quantitative methodology, and informatics so that today, 10 000-20 000 phosphorylation sites can be identified and quantified within a few weeks. With the rapid development and widespread availability of such data, its translation into biological insight and knowledge is a current obstacle. Here we present an overview of how this technology came to be and is currently applied, as well as future challenges for the field.