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Kulyyassov A, Fresnais M, Longuespée R. Targeted liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry analysis of proteins: Basic principles, applications, and perspectives. Proteomics 2021; 21:e2100153. [PMID: 34591362 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.202100153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2021] [Revised: 09/08/2021] [Accepted: 09/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) is now the main analytical method for the identification and quantification of peptides and proteins in biological samples. In modern research, identification of biomarkers and their quantitative comparison between samples are becoming increasingly important for discovery, validation, and monitoring. Such data can be obtained following specific signals after fragmentation of peptides using multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) and parallel reaction monitoring (PRM) methods, with high specificity, accuracy, and reproducibility. In addition, these methods allow measurement of the amount of post-translationally modified forms and isoforms of proteins. This review article describes the basic principles of MRM assays, guidelines for sample preparation, recent advanced MRM-based strategies, applications and illustrative perspectives of MRM/PRM methods in clinical research and molecular biology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Margaux Fresnais
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rémi Longuespée
- Department of Clinical Pharmacology and Pharmacoepidemiology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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2
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Paternoster V, Edhager AV, Qvist P, Donskov JG, Shliaha P, Jensen ON, Mors O, Nielsen AL, Børglum AD, Palmfeldt J, Christensen JH. Inactivation of the Schizophrenia-associated BRD1 gene in Brain Causes Failure-to-thrive, Seizure Susceptibility and Abnormal Histone H3 Acetylation and N-tail Clipping. Mol Neurobiol 2021; 58:4495-4505. [PMID: 34056693 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-021-02432-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Accepted: 05/14/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Genetic studies have repeatedly shown that the Bromodomain containing 1 gene, BRD1, is involved in determining mental health, and the importance of the BRD1 protein for normal brain function has been studied in both cell models and constitutive haploinsufficient Brd1+/- mice. Homozygosity for inactivated Brd1 alleles is lethal during embryonic development in mice. In order to further characterize the molecular functions of BRD1 in the brain, we have developed a novel Brd1 knockout mouse model (Brd1-/-) with bi-allelic conditional inactivation of Brd1 in the central nervous system. Brd1-/- mice were viable but smaller and with reduced muscle strength. They showed reduced exploratory behavior and increased sensitivity to pentylenetetrazole-induced seizures supporting the previously described GABAergic dysfunction in constitutive Brd1+/- mice. Because BRD1 takes part in protein complexes with histone binding and modifying functions, we investigated the effect of BRD1 depletion on the global histone modification pattern in mouse brain by mass spectrometry. We found decreased levels of histone H3 acetylation (H3K9ac, H3K14ac, and H3K18ac) and increased N-tail clipping in consequence of BRD1 depletion. Collectively, the presented results support that BRD1 controls gene expression at the epigenetic level by regulating histone H3 proteoforms in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Veerle Paternoster
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, CGPM, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anders Valdemar Edhager
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Research Unit for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Per Qvist
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, CGPM, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Julie Grinderslev Donskov
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, CGPM, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Pavel Shliaha
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ole Nørregaard Jensen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense, Denmark
| | - Ole Mors
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Psychosis Research Unit, Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Anders Lade Nielsen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Anders Dupont Børglum
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark.,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark.,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Centre for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, CGPM, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Johan Palmfeldt
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.,Research Unit for Molecular Medicine, Aarhus University Hospital, Aarhus, Denmark
| | - Jane Hvarregaard Christensen
- The Lundbeck Foundation Initiative for Integrative Psychiatric Research, iPSYCH, Aarhus, Denmark. .,Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Høegh-Guldbergs Gade 10, DK-8000, Aarhus C, Denmark. .,Centre for Integrative Sequencing, iSEQ, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark. .,Centre for Genomics and Personalized Medicine, CGPM, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark.
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3
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Small Mass but Strong Information: Diagnostic Ions Provide Crucial Clues to Correctly Identify Histone Lysine Modifications. Proteomes 2021; 9:proteomes9020018. [PMID: 33922761 PMCID: PMC8167651 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes9020018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2021] [Revised: 04/13/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
(1) Background: The proteomic analysis of histones constitutes a delicate task due to the combination of two factors: slight variations in the amino acid sequences of variants and the multiplicity of post-translational modifications (PTMs), particularly those occurring on lysine residues. (2) Methods: To dissect the relationship between both aspects, we carefully evaluated PTM identification on lysine 27 from histone H3 (H3K27) and the artefactual chemical modifications that may lead to erroneous PTM determination. H3K27 is a particularly interesting example because it can bear a range of PTMs and it sits nearby residues 29 and 31 that vary between H3 sequence variants. We discuss how the retention times, neutral losses and immonium/diagnostic ions observed in the MS/MS spectra of peptides bearing modified lysines detectable in the low-mass region might help validate the identification of modified sequences. (3) Results: Diagnostic ions carry key information, thereby avoiding potential mis-identifications due to either isobaric PTM combinations or isobaric amino acid-PTM combinations. This also includes cases where chemical formylation or acetylation of peptide N-termini artefactually occurs during sample processing or simply in the timeframe of LC-MS/MS analysis. Finally, in the very subtle case of positional isomers possibly corresponding to a given mass of lysine modification, the immonium and diagnostic ions may allow the identification of the in vivo structure.
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Daled S, Willems S, Van Puyvelde B, Corveleyn L, Verhelst S, De Clerck L, Deforce D, Dhaenens M. Histone Sample Preparation for Bottom-Up Mass Spectrometry: A Roadmap to Informed Decisions. Proteomes 2021; 9:17. [PMID: 33919160 PMCID: PMC8167631 DOI: 10.3390/proteomes9020017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2021] [Revised: 04/08/2021] [Accepted: 04/19/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Histone-based chromatin organization enabled eukaryotic genome complexity. This epigenetic control mechanism allowed for the differentiation of stable gene-expression and thus the very existence of multicellular organisms. This existential role in biology makes histones one of the most complexly modified molecules in the biotic world, which makes these key regulators notoriously hard to analyze. We here provide a roadmap to enable fast and informed selection of a bottom-up mass spectrometry sample preparation protocol that matches a specific research question. We therefore propose a two-step assessment procedure: (i) visualization of the coverage that is attained for a given workflow and (ii) direct alignment between runs to assess potential pitfalls at the ion level. To illustrate the applicability, we compare four different sample preparation protocols while adding a new enzyme to the toolbox, i.e., RgpB (GingisREX®, Genovis, Lund, Sweden), an endoproteinase that selectively and efficiently cleaves at the c-terminal end of arginine residues. Raw data are available via ProteomeXchange with identifier PXD024423.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon Daled
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Sander Willems
- Department of Proteomics and Signal Transduction, Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry, 82152 Martinsried, Germany;
| | - Bart Van Puyvelde
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Laura Corveleyn
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Sigrid Verhelst
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Laura De Clerck
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Dieter Deforce
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
| | - Maarten Dhaenens
- Laboratory of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology/ProGenTomics, Ghent University, Ottergemsesteenweg 460, 9000 Ghent, Belgium; (S.D.); (B.V.P.); (L.C.); (S.V.); (L.D.C.); (D.D.)
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Mass Spectrometry to Study Chromatin Compaction. BIOLOGY 2020; 9:biology9060140. [PMID: 32604817 PMCID: PMC7345930 DOI: 10.3390/biology9060140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Revised: 06/19/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Chromatin accessibility is a major regulator of gene expression. Histone writers/erasers have a critical role in chromatin compaction, as they “flag” chromatin regions by catalyzing/removing covalent post-translational modifications on histone proteins. Anomalous chromatin decondensation is a common phenomenon in cells experiencing aging and viral infection. Moreover, about 50% of cancers have mutations in enzymes regulating chromatin state. Numerous genomics methods have evolved to characterize chromatin state, but the analysis of (in)accessible chromatin from the protein perspective is not yet in the spotlight. We present an overview of the most used approaches to generate data on chromatin accessibility and then focus on emerging methods that utilize mass spectrometry to quantify the accessibility of histones and the rest of the chromatin bound proteome. Mass spectrometry is currently the method of choice to quantify entire proteomes in an unbiased large-scale manner; accessibility on chromatin of proteins and protein modifications adds an extra quantitative layer to proteomics dataset that assist more informed data-driven hypotheses in chromatin biology. We speculate that this emerging new set of methods will enhance predictive strength on which proteins and histone modifications are critical in gene regulation, and which proteins occupy different chromatin states in health and disease.
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Hu Y, Zhang L, Chen J, Yao J, Jin H, Yang P. Outer Membrane Protease OmpT-Based Strategy for Simplified Analysis of Histone Post-Translational Modifications by Mass Spectrometry. Anal Chem 2020; 92:732-739. [PMID: 31775502 DOI: 10.1021/acs.analchem.9b02766] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Histone modifications play an important role in regulating transcriptional gene expression and chromatin processes in eukaryotes. Increasing researches proved that aberrant post-translational modifications (PTMs) of histones is associated with many diseases. However, MS-based identification and quantification of histone PTMs are still challenging. Although classic chemical derivatization in conjunction with trypsin digestion is widely used for histone PTMs analysis in a bottom-up strategy, several side reactions have been observed in practice. In this work, outer membrane protease T (OmpT) was utilized as a protease for direct histone proteolysis and generated appropriate lengths of histone peptides for retention on reversed-phase chromatography. The powerful and unique tolerance of OmpT for modified lysines and arginines was demonstrated and can be quantitatively described for the first time, making it useful for detecting natural modifications. Using the optimized digestion conditions, we succeeded in identifying 121 histone marks from HEK293T cells, 42 of which were previously unreported. Additionally, histone H3 PTMs were quantitatively profiled in the KMS11 multiple myeloma cells and NSD2 selective knockout KMS11cells, revealing that NSD2 was of high specificity on H3K36 dimethylation. Histone chemical derivatizations are not required in our strategy, showing a remarkable strength over the conventional trypsin-based workflow.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yajun Hu
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Jiajia Chen
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Jun Yao
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Hong Jin
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China
| | - Pengyuan Yang
- Shanghai Stomatological Hospital & Institutes of Biomedical Sciences , Fudan University , Shanghai 200433 , China.,Department of Chemistry , Fudan University , Shanghai 200032 , China
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7
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Increased retention of LDL from type 1 diabetic patients in atherosclerosis-prone areas of the murine arterial wall. Atherosclerosis 2019; 286:156-162. [PMID: 30871723 DOI: 10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2019.02.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2018] [Revised: 02/27/2019] [Accepted: 02/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND AIMS Type 1 diabetes accelerates the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases. Retention of low-density lipoprotein (LDL) in the arterial wall is a causal step in atherogenesis, but it is unknown whether diabetes alters the propensity of LDL for retention. The present study investigated whether LDL from type 1 diabetic and healthy non-diabetic subjects differed in their ability to bind to the arterial wall in a type 1 diabetic mouse model. METHODS Fluorescently-labeled LDL obtained from type 1 diabetic patients or healthy controls was injected into mice with type 1 diabetes. The amount of retained LDL in the atherosclerosis-prone inner curvature of the aortic arch was quantified by fluorescence microscopy. Healthy control LDL was in vitro glycated, analyzed for protein glycation by LC-MS/MS, and tested for retention propensity. RESULTS Retention of LDL from type 1 diabetic patients was 4.35-fold higher compared to LDL from nondiabetic subjects. Nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy analysis of LDL revealed no differences in the concentration of the atherogenic small dense LDL between type 1 diabetic and non-diabetic subjects. In vitro glycation of LDL from a non-diabetic subject increased retention compared to non-glycated LDL. LC-MS/MS revealed four new glycated spots in the protein sequence of ApoB of in vitro glycated LDL. CONCLUSIONS LDL from type 1 diabetic patients showed increased retention at atherosclerosis-prone sites in the arterial wall of diabetic mice. Glycation of LDL is one modification that may increase retention, but other, yet unknown, mechanisms are also likely to contribute.
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8
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Leitner A. A review of the role of chemical modification methods in contemporary mass spectrometry-based proteomics research. Anal Chim Acta 2018; 1000:2-19. [DOI: 10.1016/j.aca.2017.08.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/24/2017] [Revised: 07/11/2017] [Accepted: 08/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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9
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Soldi M, Cuomo A, Bonaldi T. Quantitative assessment of chemical artefacts produced by propionylation of histones prior to mass spectrometry analysis. Proteomics 2017; 16:1952-4. [PMID: 27373704 DOI: 10.1002/pmic.201600173] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Revised: 06/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Abstract
Histone PTMs play a crucial role in regulating chromatin structure and function, with impact on gene expression. MS is nowadays widely applied to study histone PTMs systematically. Because histones are rich in arginine and lysine, classical shot-gun approaches based on trypsin digestion are typically not employed for histone modifications mapping. Instead, different protocols of chemical derivatization of lysines in combination with trypsin have been implemented to obtain "Arg-C like" digestion products that are more suitable for LC-MS/MS analysis. Although widespread, these strategies have been recently described to cause various side reactions that result in chemical modifications prone to be misinterpreted as native histone marks. These artefacts can also interfere with the quantification process, causing errors in histone PTMs profiling. The work of Paternoster V. et al. is a quantitative assessment of methyl-esterification and other side reactions occurring on histones after chemical derivatization of lysines with propionic anhydride [Proteomics 2016, 16, 2059-2063]. The authors estimate the effect of different solvents, incubation times, and pH on the extent of these side reactions. The results collected indicate that the replacement of methanol with isopropanol or ACN not only blocks methyl-esterification, but also significantly reduces other undesired unspecific reactions. Carefully titrating the pH after propionic anhydride addition is another way to keep methyl-esterification under control. Overall, the authors describe a set of experimental conditions that allow reducing the generation of various artefacts during histone propionylation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Soldi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Milano, Italy
| | - Alessandro Cuomo
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Milano, Italy
| | - Tiziana Bonaldi
- Department of Experimental Oncology, European Institute of Oncology, Milano, Italy
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Janssen KA, Sidoli S, Garcia BA. Recent Achievements in Characterizing the Histone Code and Approaches to Integrating Epigenomics and Systems Biology. Methods Enzymol 2017; 586:359-378. [PMID: 28137571 DOI: 10.1016/bs.mie.2016.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Functional epigenetic regulation occurs by dynamic modification of chromatin, including genetic material (i.e., DNA methylation), histone proteins, and other nuclear proteins. Due to the highly complex nature of the histone code, mass spectrometry (MS) has become the leading technique in identification of single and combinatorial histone modifications. MS has now overcome antibody-based strategies due to its automation, high resolution, and accurate quantitation. Moreover, multiple approaches to analysis have been developed for global quantitation of posttranslational modifications (PTMs), including large-scale characterization of modification coexistence (middle-down and top-down proteomics), which is not currently possible with any other biochemical strategy. Recently, our group and others have simplified and increased the effectiveness of analyzing histone PTMs by improving multiple MS methods and data analysis tools. This review provides an overview of the major achievements in the analysis of histone PTMs using MS with a focus on the most recent improvements. We speculate that the workflow for histone analysis at its state of the art is highly reliable in terms of identification and quantitation accuracy, and it has the potential to become a routine method for systems biology thanks to the possibility of integrating histone MS results with genomics and proteomics datasets.
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Affiliation(s)
- K A Janssen
- Epigenetics Program, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - S Sidoli
- Epigenetics Program, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - B A Garcia
- Epigenetics Program, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States.
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Willems S, Dhaenens M, Govaert E, De Clerck L, Meert P, Van Neste C, Van Nieuwerburgh F, Deforce D. Flagging False Positives Following Untargeted LC–MS Characterization of Histone Post-Translational Modification Combinations. J Proteome Res 2016; 16:655-664. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jproteome.6b00724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Sander Willems
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Maarten Dhaenens
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Elisabeth Govaert
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Laura De Clerck
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Paulien Meert
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | - Christophe Van Neste
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
- Bioinformatics
Institute Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, 9052, Belgium
- Center
for Medical Genetics Ghent, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
| | | | - Dieter Deforce
- Laboratory
of Pharmaceutical Biotechnology, Ghent University, Ghent, 9000, Belgium
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