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Dubashynskaya NV, Gasilova ER, Skorik YA. Nano-Sized Fucoidan Interpolyelectrolyte Complexes: Recent Advances in Design and Prospects for Biomedical Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24032615. [PMID: 36768936 PMCID: PMC9916530 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24032615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2023] [Revised: 01/27/2023] [Accepted: 01/27/2023] [Indexed: 01/31/2023] Open
Abstract
The marine polysaccharide fucoidan (FUC) is a promising polymer for pharmaceutical research and development of novel drug delivery systems with modified release and targeted delivery. The presence of a sulfate group in the polysaccharide makes FUC an excellent candidate for the formation of interpolyelectrolyte complexes (PECs) with various polycations. However, due to the structural diversity of FUC, the design of FUC-based nanoformulations is challenging. This review describes the main strategies for the use of FUC-based PECs to develop drug delivery systems with improved biopharmaceutical properties, including nanocarriers in the form of FUC-chitosan PECs for pH-sensitive oral delivery, targeted delivery systems, and polymeric nanoparticles for improved hydrophobic drug delivery (e.g., FUC-zein PECs, core-shell structures obtained by the layer-by-layer self-assembly method, and self-assembled hydrophobically modified FUC particles). The importance of a complex study of the FUC structure, and the formation process of PECs based on it for obtaining reproducible polymeric nanoformulations with the desired properties, is also discussed.
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2
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Biran I, Houben L, Weissman H, Hildebrand M, Kronik L, Rybtchinski B. Real-Space Crystal Structure Analysis by Low-Dose Focal-Series TEM Imaging of Organic Materials with Near-Atomic Resolution. ADVANCED MATERIALS (DEERFIELD BEACH, FLA.) 2022; 34:e2202088. [PMID: 35451121 DOI: 10.1002/adma.202202088] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2022] [Revised: 04/17/2022] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Structural analysis of beam-sensitive materials by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) represents a significant challenge, as high-resolution TEM (HRTEM) requires high electron doses that limit its applicability to stable inorganic materials. Beam-sensitive materials, e.g., organic crystals, must be imaged under low dose conditions, leading to problematic contrast interpretation and loss of fine structural details. Here, HRTEM imaging of organic crystalline materials with near-atomic resolution of up to 1.6 Å is described, which enables real-space studies of crystal structures, as well as observation of co-existing polymorphs, crystal defects, and atoms. This is made possible by a low-dose focal-series reconstruction methodology, which provides HRTEM images where contrast reflects true object structure and can be performed on contemporary cryo-EM instruments available to many research institutions. Copper phthalocyanine (CuPc), a perchlorinated analogue of CuPc, and indigo crystalline films are imaged. In the case of indigo crystals, co-existing polymorphs and individual atoms (carbonyl oxygen) can be observed. In the case of CuPc, several polymorphs are observed, including a new one, for which the crystal structure is found based on direct in-focus imaging, accomplishing real-space crystal structure elucidation. Such direct analysis can be transformative for structure studies of organic materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Idan Biran
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Lothar Houben
- Department of Chemical Research Support, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Haim Weissman
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Mariana Hildebrand
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Leeor Kronik
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Boris Rybtchinski
- Department of Molecular Chemistry and Materials Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
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3
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Cendra C, Balhorn L, Zhang W, O’Hara K, Bruening K, Tassone CJ, Steinrück HG, Liang M, Toney MF, McCulloch I, Chabinyc ML, Salleo A, Takacs CJ. Unraveling the Unconventional Order of a High-Mobility Indacenodithiophene-Benzothiadiazole Copolymer. ACS Macro Lett 2021; 10:1306-1314. [PMID: 35549036 DOI: 10.1021/acsmacrolett.1c00547] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
A new class of donor-acceptor (D-A) copolymers found to produce high charge carrier mobilities competitive with amorphous silicon (>1 cm2 V-1 s-1) exhibit the puzzling microstructure of substantial local order, however lacking long-range order and crystallinity previously deemed necessary for achieving high mobility. Here, we demonstrate the application of low-dose transmission electron microscopy to image and quantify the nanoscale and mesoscale organization of an archetypal D-A copolymer across areas comparable to electronic devices (≈9 μm2). The local structure is spatially resolved by mapping the backbone (001) spacing reflection, revealing nanocrystallites of aligned polymer chains throughout nearly the entire film. Analysis of the nanoscale structure of its ordered domains suggests significant short- and medium-range order and preferential grain boundary orientations. Moreover, we provide insights into the rich, interconnected mesoscale organization of this new family of D-A copolymers by analysis of the local orientational spatial autocorrelations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Camila Cendra
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Luke Balhorn
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Weimin Zhang
- Physical Science and Engineering Division KAUST Solar Center (KSC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Kathryn O’Hara
- Materials Department, University of California—Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Karsten Bruening
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Christopher J. Tassone
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Hans-Georg Steinrück
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
- Department Chemie, Universität Paderborn, 33098 Paderborn, Germany
| | - Mengning Liang
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
| | - Michael F. Toney
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
- Department of Chemical and Biological Engineering, University of Colorado—Boulder, Boulder, Colorado 80303, United States
| | - Iain McCulloch
- Physical Science and Engineering Division KAUST Solar Center (KSC), King Abdullah University of Science and Technology (KAUST), Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
- Department of Chemistry, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3TA, United Kingdom
| | - Michael L. Chabinyc
- Materials Department, University of California—Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alberto Salleo
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305, United States
| | - Christopher J. Takacs
- Stanford Synchrotron Radiation Lightsource, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, Menlo Park, California 94025, United States
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4
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Chen J. Advanced Electron Microscopy of Nanophased Synthetic Polymers and Soft Complexes for Energy and Medicine Applications. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:2405. [PMID: 34578720 PMCID: PMC8470047 DOI: 10.3390/nano11092405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Revised: 08/02/2021] [Accepted: 09/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
After decades of developments, electron microscopy has become a powerful and irreplaceable tool in understanding the ionic, electrical, mechanical, chemical, and other functional performances of next-generation polymers and soft complexes. The recent progress in electron microscopy of nanostructured polymers and soft assemblies is important for applications in many different fields, including, but not limited to, mesoporous and nanoporous materials, absorbents, membranes, solid electrolytes, battery electrodes, ion- and electron-transporting materials, organic semiconductors, soft robotics, optoelectronic devices, biomass, soft magnetic materials, and pharmaceutical drug design. For synthetic polymers and soft complexes, there are four main characteristics that differentiate them from their inorganic or biomacromolecular counterparts in electron microscopy studies: (1) lower contrast, (2) abundance of light elements, (3) polydispersity or nanomorphological variations, and (4) large changes induced by electron beams. Since 2011, the Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences (CNMS) at Oak Ridge National Laboratory has been working with numerous facility users on nanostructured polymer composites, block copolymers, polymer brushes, conjugated molecules, organic-inorganic hybrid nanomaterials, organic-inorganic interfaces, organic crystals, and other soft complexes. This review crystalizes some of the essential challenges, successes, failures, and techniques during the process in the past ten years. It also presents some outlooks and future expectations on the basis of these works at the intersection of electron microscopy, soft matter, and artificial intelligence. Machine learning is expected to automate and facilitate image processing and information extraction of polymer and soft hybrid nanostructures in aspects such as dose-controlled imaging and structure analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jihua Chen
- Center for Nanophase Materials Sciences, Oak Ridge National Laboratory, Oak Ridge, TN 37831, USA
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5
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Kuei B, Gomez ED. Pushing the limits of high-resolution polymer microscopy using antioxidants. Nat Commun 2021; 12:153. [PMID: 33420049 PMCID: PMC7794589 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-020-20363-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023] Open
Abstract
High-resolution transmission electron microscopy (HRTEM) has been transformative to the field of polymer science, enabling the direct imaging of molecular structures. Although some materials have remarkable stability under electron beams, most HRTEM studies are limited by the electron dose the sample can handle. Beam damage of conjugated polymers is not yet fully understood, but it has been suggested that the diffusion of secondary reacting species may play a role. As such, we examine the effect of the addition of antioxidants to a series of solution-processable conjugated polymers as an approach to mitigating beam damage. Characterizing the effects of beam damage by calculating critical dose DC values from the decay of electron diffraction peaks shows that beam damage of conjugated polymers in the TEM can be minimized by using antioxidants at room temperature, even if the antioxidant does not alter or incorporate into polymer crystals. As a consequence, the addition of antioxidants pushes the resolution limit of polymer microscopy, enabling imaging of a 3.6 Å lattice spacing in poly[(5,6-difluoro-2,1,3-benzothiadiazol-4,7-diyl)-alt-(3,3″'-di(2-octyldodecyl)-2,2';5',2″;5″,2″'-quaterthiophene-5,5″'-diyl)] (PffBT4T-2OD).
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Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Kuei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA
| | - Enrique D Gomez
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA.
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA.
- Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania, 16802, USA.
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6
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Kuei B, Bator C, Gomez ED. Imaging 0.36 nm Lattice Planes in Conjugated Polymers by Minimizing Beam Damage. Macromolecules 2020. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.0c01082] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brooke Kuei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Carol Bator
- Huck Life Sciences, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
| | - Enrique D. Gomez
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
- Department of Chemical Engineering, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
- Materials Research Institute, The Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, United States
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7
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Gemmi M, Mugnaioli E, Gorelik TE, Kolb U, Palatinus L, Boullay P, Hovmöller S, Abrahams JP. 3D Electron Diffraction: The Nanocrystallography Revolution. ACS CENTRAL SCIENCE 2019; 5:1315-1329. [PMID: 31482114 PMCID: PMC6716134 DOI: 10.1021/acscentsci.9b00394] [Citation(s) in RCA: 203] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2019] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
Crystallography of nanocrystalline materials has witnessed a true revolution in the past 10 years, thanks to the introduction of protocols for 3D acquisition and analysis of electron diffraction data. This method provides single-crystal data of structure solution and refinement quality, allowing the atomic structure determination of those materials that remained hitherto unknown because of their limited crystallinity. Several experimental protocols exist, which share the common idea of sampling a sequence of diffraction patterns while the crystal is tilted around a noncrystallographic axis, namely, the goniometer axis of the transmission electron microscope sample stage. This Outlook reviews most important 3D electron diffraction applications for different kinds of samples and problematics, related with both materials and life sciences. Structure refinement including dynamical scattering is also briefly discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mauro Gemmi
- Center
for Nanotechnology Innovation@NEST, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Piazza S. Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Enrico Mugnaioli
- Center
for Nanotechnology Innovation@NEST, Istituto
Italiano di Tecnologia, Piazza S. Silvestro 12, 56127 Pisa, Italy
| | - Tatiana E. Gorelik
- University
of Ulm, Central Facility for Electron Microscopy, Electron Microscopy
Group of Materials Science (EMMS), Albert Einstein Allee 11, 89081 Ulm, Germany
| | - Ute Kolb
- Institut
für Anorganische Chemie und Analytische Chemie, Johannes Gutenberg-Universität, Duesbergweg 10-14, 55128 Mainz, Germany
- Institut
für Angewandte Geowissenschaften, Technische Universität Darmstadt, Schnittspahnstraße 9, 64287 Darmstadt, Germany
| | - Lukas Palatinus
- Department
of Structure Analysis, Institute of Physics
of the CAS, Na Slovance 2, 182 21 Prague 8, Czechia
| | - Philippe Boullay
- CRISMAT,
Normandie Université, ENSICAEN, UNICAEN, CNRS UMR 6508, 6 Bd Maréchal Juin, F-14050 Cedex Caen, France
| | - Sven Hovmöller
- Inorganic
and Structural Chemistry, Department of Materials and Environmental
Chemistry, Stockholm University, 106 91 Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Jan Pieter Abrahams
- Center
for Cellular Imaging and NanoAnalytics (C−CINA), Biozentrum, Basel University, Mattenstrasse 26, CH-4058 Basel, Switzerland
- Department
of Biology and Chemistry, Paul Scherrer
Institut (PSI), CH-5232 Villigen PSI, Switzerland
- Leiden
Institute of Biology, Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands
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8
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Radiation damage to organic and inorganic specimens in the TEM. Micron 2019; 119:72-87. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2019.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 174] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/16/2019] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
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9
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Mu X, Mazilkin A, Sprau C, Colsmann A, Kübel C. Mapping structure and morphology of amorphous organic thin films by 4D-STEM pair distribution function analysis. Microscopy (Oxf) 2019; 68:301-309. [DOI: 10.1093/jmicro/dfz015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/26/2018] [Accepted: 02/24/2019] [Indexed: 11/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Abstract
Imaging the phase distribution of amorphous or partially crystalline organic materials at the nanoscale and analyzing the local atomic structure of individual phases has been a long-time challenge. We propose a new approach for imaging the phase distribution and for analyzing the local structure of organic materials based on scanning transmission electron diffraction (4D-STEM) pair distribution function analysis (PDF). We show that electron diffraction based PDF analysis can be used to characterize the short- and medium-range order in aperiodically packed organic molecules. Moreover, we show that 4D-STEM-PDF does not only provide local structural information with a resolution of a few nanometers, but can also be used to image the phase distribution of organic composites. The distinct and thickness independent contrast of the phase image is generated by utilizing the structural difference between the different types of molecules and taking advantage of the dose efficiency due to use of the full scattering signal. Therefore, this approach is particularly interesting for imaging unstained organic or polymer composites without distinct valence states for electron energy loss spectroscopy. We explore the possibilities of this new approach using [6,6]-phenyl-C61- butyric acid methyl ester (PC61BM) and poly(3-hexylthiophene-2,5-diyl) (P3HT) as the archetypical and best-investigated semiconductor blend used in organic solar cells, compare our phase distribution with virtual dark-field analysis and validate our approach by electron energy loss spectroscopy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaoke Mu
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Andrey Mazilkin
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
| | - Christian Sprau
- Light Technology Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Alexander Colsmann
- Light Technology Institute, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
| | - Christian Kübel
- Institute of Nanotechnology, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
- Karlsruhe Nano Micro Facility, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), 76344 Eggenstein-Leopoldshafen, Germany
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10
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O’Hara K, Takacs CJ, Liu S, Cruciani F, Beaujuge P, Hawker CJ, Chabinyc ML. Effect of Alkyl Side Chains on Intercrystallite Ordering in Semiconducting Polymers. Macromolecules 2019. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.macromol.8b02760] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn O’Hara
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Christopher J. Takacs
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Shengjian Liu
- Physical Sciences and Engineering Division, KAUST Solar Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Federico Cruciani
- Physical Sciences and Engineering Division, KAUST Solar Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Pierre Beaujuge
- Physical Sciences and Engineering Division, KAUST Solar Center, King Abdullah University of Science and Technology, Thuwal 23955-6900, Saudi Arabia
| | - Craig J. Hawker
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Michael L. Chabinyc
- Materials Department, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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11
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Liu J, Lin DY, Wei B, Martin DC. Single Electrospun PLLA and PCL Polymer Nanofibers: Increased Molecular Orientation with Decreased Fiber Diameter. POLYMER 2017; 118:143-149. [PMID: 29062160 PMCID: PMC5650197 DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2017.04.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Electrospinning has become a widely-used method for fabricating polymer nanofibers for various applications including filtration, drug delivery, and tissue engineering. Due to the high extensional forces during the electrospinning process, and the rapid crystallization and solidification during solvent evaporation, molecular orientation may develop within the resulting fibers. The properties of electrospun fibers are expected to be sensitive to level of orientation in the fibers. Various reports have shown an increased modulus with decreased fiber diameter, and molecular orientation has been used to explain this trend. However, there have been relatively few studies of the detailed relationship between fiber diameter and molecular orientation, especially at the single fiber level. Here we report a quantitative study of the orientation in individual electrospun poly(caprolactone) (PCL) and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLLA) fibers using low-dose electron microscopy and diffraction techniques. Our results confirmed that for electrospun fibers of PCL and PLLA processed under similar experimental conditions, the molecular orientation decreased as the fiber diameter increased. The extent of orientation remained high for quite large fiber diameters, with azimuthal orientation of 20 degrees seen up to ~500 nm for PCL and ~2000 nm for PLLA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinglin Liu
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19716
| | | | - Bin Wei
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19716
| | - David C. Martin
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, The University of Delaware, Newark, DE, 19716
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12
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Jordan R, Wang Y, McCurdy R, Yeung M, Marsh K, Khan S, Kaner R, Rubin Y. Synthesis of Graphene Nanoribbons via the Topochemical Polymerization and Subsequent Aromatization of a Diacetylene Precursor. Chem 2016. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chempr.2016.06.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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13
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Lolla D, Gorse J, Kisielowski C, Miao J, Taylor PL, Chase GG, Reneker DH. Polyvinylidene fluoride molecules in nanofibers, imaged at atomic scale by aberration corrected electron microscopy. NANOSCALE 2016; 8:120-128. [PMID: 26369731 DOI: 10.1039/c5nr01619c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Atomic scale features of polyvinylidene fluoride molecules (PVDF) were observed with aberration corrected transmission electron microscopy. Thin, self-supporting PVDF nanofibers were used to create images that show conformations and relative locations of atoms in segments of polymer molecules, particularly segments near the surface of the nanofiber. Rows of CF2 atomic groups, at 0.25 nm intervals, which marked the paths of segments of the PVDF molecules, were seen. The fact that an electron microscope image of a segment of a PVDF molecule depended upon the particular azimuthal direction, along which the segment was viewed, enabled observation of twist around the molecular axis. The 0.2 nm side-by-side distance between the two fluorine atoms attached to the same carbon atom was clearly resolved. Morphological and chemical changes produced by energetic electrons, ranging from no change to fiber scission, over many orders of magnitude of electrons per unit area, promise quantitative new insights into radiation chemistry. Relative movements of segments of molecules were observed. Promising synergism between high resolution electron microscopy and molecular dynamic modeling was demonstrated. This paper is at the threshold of growing usefulness of electron microscopy to the science and engineering of polymer and other molecules.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinesh Lolla
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44313, USA
| | - Joseph Gorse
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44313, USA.
| | - Christian Kisielowski
- The Molecular Foundry and Joint Center for Artificial Photosynthesis, Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory, One Cyclotron Rd, Berkeley CA 94720, USA
| | - Jiayuan Miao
- Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Philip L Taylor
- Department of Physics, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - George G Chase
- Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44313, USA
| | - Darrell H Reneker
- Department of Polymer Science, The University of Akron, Akron, OH 44313, USA.
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14
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Mevenkamp N, Binev P, Dahmen W, Voyles PM, Yankovich AB, Berkels B. Poisson noise removal from high-resolution STEM images based on periodic block matching. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.1186/s40679-015-0004-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
AbstractScanning transmission electron microscopy (STEM) provides sub-ångstrom, atomic resolution images of crystalline structures. However, in many applications, the ability to extract information such as atom positions, from such electron micrographs, is severely obstructed by low signal-to-noise ratios of the acquired images resulting from necessary limitations to the electron dose. We present a denoising strategy tailored to the special features of atomic-resolution electron micrographs of crystals limited by Poisson noise based on the block-matching and 3D-filtering (BM3D) algorithm by Dabov et al. We also present an economized block-matching strategy that exploits the periodic structure of the observed crystals. On simulated single-shot STEM images of inorganic materials, with incident electron doses below 4 C/cm 2, our new method achieves precisions of 7 to 15 pm and an increase in peak signal-to-noise ratio (PSNR) of 15 to 20 dB compared to noisy images and 2 to 4 dB compared to images denoised with the original BM3D.
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15
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Gontard LC, Fernández A, Dunin-Borkowski RE, Kasama T, Lozano-Pérez S, Lucas S. Transmission electron microscopy of unstained hybrid Au nanoparticles capped with PPAA (plasma-poly-allylamine): Structure and electron irradiation effects. Micron 2014; 67:1-9. [DOI: 10.1016/j.micron.2014.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2014] [Revised: 06/11/2014] [Accepted: 06/12/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
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16
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Takacs CJ, Collins SD, Love JA, Mikhailovsky AA, Wynands D, Bazan GC, Nguyen TQ, Heeger AJ. Mapping orientational order in a bulk heterojunction solar cell with polarization-dependent photoconductive atomic force microscopy. ACS NANO 2014; 8:8141-51. [PMID: 25080374 DOI: 10.1021/nn502277d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
New methods connecting molecular structure, self-organization, and optoelectronic performance are important for understanding the current generation of organic photovoltaic (OPV) materials. In high power conversion efficiency (PCE) OPVs, light-harvesting small-molecules or polymers are typically blended with fullerene derivatives and deposited in thin films, forming a bulk heterojunction (BHJ), a self-assembled three-dimensional nanostructure of electron donors and acceptors that separates and transports charges. Recent data suggest micrometer-scale orientational order of donor domains exists within this complex nanomorphology, but the link to the optoelectronic properties is yet unexplored. Here we introduce polarization-dependent, photoconductive atomic force microscopy (pd-pcAFM) as a combined probe of orientational order and nanoscale optoelectronic properties (∼20 nm resolution). Using the donor 7,7'-(4,4-bis(2-ethylhexyl)-4H-silolo[3,2-b:4,5-b']dithiophene-2,6-diyl)bis(6-fluoro-4-(5'-hexyl[2,2'-bithiophen]-5-yl)benzo[c][1,2,5]thiadiazole), p-DTS(FBTTh2)2, we show significant spatial dependence of the nanoscale photocurrent with polarized light in both pristine and BHJ blends (up to 7.0% PCE) due to the local alignment of the molecular transition dipoles. By mapping the polarization dependence of the nanoscale photocurrent, we estimate the molecular orientation and orientational order parameter. Liquid crystalline disclinations are observed in all films, in agreement with complementary electron microscopy experiments, and the order parameter exceeds 0.3. The results demonstrate the utility of pd-pcAFM to investigate the optical/structural anisotropy that exists within a well-performing BHJ system and its relationship to optoelectronic properties on both the nanometer and micrometer length scales.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Takacs
- Department of Physics, ∞Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry and ‡Center for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California Santa Barbara , Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Zhang Y, Minus ML. Characterization and Structural Analysis of Solution-Grown Polyacrylonitrile-co-Methacrylic Acid (PAN-co-MAA) Single Crystals. Macromolecules 2014. [DOI: 10.1021/ma500737z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yiying Zhang
- Department of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 334 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02115-5000, United States
| | - Marilyn L. Minus
- Department of Mechanical
and Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, Northeastern University, 360 Huntington Avenue, 334 Snell Engineering Center, Boston, Massachusetts 02115-5000, United States
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Love JA, Nagao I, Huang Y, Kuik M, Gupta V, Takacs CJ, Coughlin JE, Qi L, van der Poll TS, Kramer EJ, Heeger AJ, Nguyen TQ, Bazan GC. Silaindacenodithiophene-Based Molecular Donor: Morphological Features and Use in the Fabrication of Compositionally Tolerant, High-Efficiency Bulk Heterojunction Solar Cells. J Am Chem Soc 2014; 136:3597-606. [DOI: 10.1021/ja412473p] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- John A. Love
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Ikuhiro Nagao
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Ye Huang
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Martijn Kuik
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Vinay Gupta
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
- Organic
and Hybrid Solar Cell Group, CSIR-National Physical Laboratory, New Delhi 110012, India
| | - Christopher J. Takacs
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Jessica E. Coughlin
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Li Qi
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Thomas S. van der Poll
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Edward J. Kramer
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Alan J. Heeger
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Thuc-Quyen Nguyen
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
| | - Guillermo C. Bazan
- Center
for Polymers and Organic Solids, University of California, Santa Barbara, California 93106, United States
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Pfaff M, Müller P, Bockstaller P, Müller E, Subbiah J, Wong WWH, Klein MFG, Kiersnowski A, Puniredd SR, Pisula W, Colsmann A, Gerthsen D, Jones DJ. Bulk heterojunction nanomorphology of fluorenyl hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene-fullerene blend films. ACS APPLIED MATERIALS & INTERFACES 2013; 5:11554-11562. [PMID: 24143919 DOI: 10.1021/am4044085] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/02/2023]
Abstract
In this study, the nanomorphology of fluorenyl hexa-peri-hexabenzocoronene:[6,6]-phenyl C61-butyric acid methyl ester (FHBC:PC61BM) absorber layers of organic solar cells was investigated. Different electron microscopical techniques, atomic force microscopy, and grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering were applied for a comprehensive nanomorphology analysis. The development of the nanomorphology upon sample annealing and the associated change of the device performance were investigated. It was shown that the annealing process enhances the phase separation and therefore the bulk heterojunction structure. Due to π-π stacking, the FHBC molecules assemble into columnar stacks, which are already present before annealing. While the nonannealed sample consists of a mixture of homogeneously distributed PC61BM molecules and FHBC stacks with a preferential in-plane stack orientation, crystalline FHBC precipitates occur in the annealed samples. These crystals, which consist of hexagonal arranged FHBC stacks, grow with increased annealing time. They are distributed homogeneously over the whole volume of the absorber layer as revealed by electron tomography. The FHBC stacks, whether in the two phase mixture or in the pure crystalline precipitates, exhibit an edge-on orientation, according to results from grazing incidence wide-angle X-ray scattering (GIWAXS), dark-field transmission electron microscopy (DF TEM) imaging and selective area electron diffraction (SAED). The best solar cell efficiencies were obtained after 20 or 40 s sample annealing. These annealing times induce an optimized degree of phase separation between donor and acceptor material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina Pfaff
- Laboratory for Electron Microscopy, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT) , Engesserstraße 7, 76131 Karlsruhe, Germany
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Zhong Z, Howe JY, Reneker DH. Molecular scale imaging and observation of electron beam-induced changes of polyvinylidene fluoride molecules in electrospun nanofibers. POLYMER 2013. [DOI: 10.1016/j.polymer.2013.03.056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Takacs CJ, Treat ND, Krämer S, Chen Z, Facchetti A, Chabinyc ML, Heeger AJ. Remarkable order of a high-performance polymer. NANO LETTERS 2013; 13:2522-7. [PMID: 23647319 DOI: 10.1021/nl4005805] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
We directly image the rich nanoscale organization of the high performance, n-type polymer poly{[N,N'-bis(2-octyldodecyl)-naphthalene-1,4,5,8-bis(dicarboximide)-2,6-diyl]-alt-5,5'-(2,2'-bithiophene)} (P(NDI2OD-T2)) using a combination of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy and scanning transmission electron microscopy. We demonstrate that it is possible to spatially resolve "face-on" lamella through the 2.4 nm alkyl stacking distance corresponding to the (100) reflection. The lamella locally transition between ordered and disordered states over a length scale on the order of 10 nm; however, the polymer backbones retain long-range correlations over length-scales approaching a micrometer. Moreover, we frequently observe overlapping structure implying a number of layers may exist throughout the thickness of the film (~20 nm). The results provide a simple picture, a highly ordered lamella nanostructure over nearly the entire film and ordered domains with overlapping layers providing additional interconnectivity, which unifies prior seemingly contradictory conclusions surrounding this remarkable, high-mobility material.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher J Takacs
- Department of Physics, Broida Hall, University of California, Santa Barbara, Santa Barbara, California 93106, USA
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22
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Wang Y, Liu J, Tran HD, Mecklenburg M, Guan XN, Stieg AZ, Regan BC, Martin DC, Kaner RB. Morphological and Dimensional Control via Hierarchical Assembly of Doped Oligoaniline Single Crystals. J Am Chem Soc 2012; 134:9251-62. [DOI: 10.1021/ja301061a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Yue Wang
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1969, United States
| | - Jinglin Liu
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716-1501, United States
| | - Henry D. Tran
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1969, United States
| | - Matthew Mecklenburg
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1547,
United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - Xin N. Guan
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1969, United States
| | - Adam Z. Stieg
- California NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
- WPI Center for Materials Nanoarchitectonics, National Institute for Materials Science, Tsukuba,
Ibaraki 305-0040, Japan
| | - B. C. Regan
- Department of Physics and Astronomy, University of California, Los Angeles, California 90095-1547,
United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
| | - David C. Martin
- Department of Materials Science
and Engineering, University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware 19716-1501, United States
| | - Richard B. Kaner
- Department of Chemistry and
Biochemistry, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California 90095-1969, United States
- California NanoSystems Institute, Los Angeles, California 90095, United States
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Kolb U, Gorelik TE, Mugnaioli E, Stewart A. Structural Characterization of Organics Using Manual and Automated Electron Diffraction. POLYM REV 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2010.494238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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25
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Martin DC, Wu J, Shaw CM, King Z, Spanninga SA, Richardson-Burns S, Hendricks J, Yang J. The Morphology of Poly(3,4-Ethylenedioxythiophene). POLYM REV 2010. [DOI: 10.1080/15583724.2010.495440] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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26
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Minus ML, Chae HG, Kumar S. Observations on Solution Crystallization of Poly(vinyl alcohol) in the Presence of Single-Wall Carbon Nanotubes. Macromol Rapid Commun 2010; 31:310-6. [DOI: 10.1002/marc.200900539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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Drummy LF, Koerner H, Farmer K, Tan A, Farmer BL, Vaia RA. High-resolution electron microscopy of montmorillonite and montmorillonite/epoxy nanocomposites. J Phys Chem B 2007; 109:17868-78. [PMID: 16853292 DOI: 10.1021/jp053133l] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
With the use of high-resolution transmission electron microscopy the structure and morphology of montmorillonite (MMT), a material of current interest for use in polymer nanocomposites, was characterized. Using both imaging theory and experiment, the procedures needed to generate lattice images from MMT were established. These procedures involve careful control of the microscope's objective lens defocus to maximize contrast from features of a certain size, as well as limiting the total dose of electrons received by the sample. Direct images of the MMT lattice were obtained from neat Na+ MMT, organically modified MMT, and organically modified MMT/epoxy nanocomposites. The degree of crystallinity and turbostratic disorder were characterized using electron diffraction and high-resolution electron microscopy (HREM). Also, the extent of the MMT sheets to bend when processed into an epoxy matrix was directly visualized. A minimum radius of curvature tolerable for a single MMT sheet during bending deformation was estimated to be 15 nm, and from this value a critical failure strain of 0.033 was calculated. HREM can be used to improve the understanding of the structure of polymer nanocomposites at the nanometer-length scale.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lawrence F Drummy
- Air Force Research Laboratory, Materials and Manufacturing Directorate, Wright Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio 45433, USA
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