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Oner M, Lin E, Chen MC, Hsu FN, Shazzad Hossain Prince GM, Chiu KY, Teng CLJ, Yang TY, Wang HY, Yue CH, Yu CH, Lai CH, Hsieh JT, Lin H. Future Aspects of CDK5 in Prostate Cancer: From Pathogenesis to Therapeutic Implications. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20163881. [PMID: 31395805 PMCID: PMC6720211 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20163881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2019] [Revised: 08/06/2019] [Accepted: 08/07/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (CDK5) is a unique member of the cyclin-dependent kinase family. CDK5 is activated by binding with its regulatory proteins, mainly p35, and its activation is essential in the development of the central nervous system (CNS) and neurodegeneration. Recently, it has been reported that CDK5 plays important roles in regulating various biological and pathological processes, including cancer progression. Concerning prostate cancer, the androgen receptor (AR) is majorly involved in tumorigenesis, while CDK5 can phosphorylate AR and promotes the proliferation of prostate cancer cells. Clinical evidence has also shown that the level of CDK5 is associated with the progression of prostate cancer. Interestingly, inhibition of CDK5 prevents prostate cancer cell growth, while drug-triggered CDK5 hyperactivation leads to apoptosis. The blocking of CDK5 activity by its small interfering RNAs (siRNA) or Roscovitine, a pan-CDK inhibitor, reduces the cellular AR protein level and triggers the death of prostate cancer cells. Thus, CDK5 plays a crucial role in the growth of prostate cancer cells, and AR regulation is one of the important pathways. In this review paper, we summarize the significant studies on CDK5-mediated regulation of prostate cancer cells. We propose that the CDK5–p35 complex might be an outstanding candidate as a diagnostic marker and potential target for prostate cancer treatment in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Muhammet Oner
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | - Eugene Lin
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
- Department of Urology, Chang Bing Show Chwan Memorial Hospital, Changhua 505, Taiwan
| | - Mei-Chih Chen
- Translational Cell Therapy Center, Department of Medical Research, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40447, Taiwan
| | - Fu-Ning Hsu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan
| | | | - Kun-Yuan Chiu
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 40705, Taiwan
| | - Chieh-Lin Jerry Teng
- Division of Hematology/Medical Oncology, Department of Internal, Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 40705, Taiwan
| | - Tsung-Ying Yang
- Division of Chest Medicine, Department of Internal Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 40705, Taiwan
| | - Hsin-Yi Wang
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Taichung Veterans General Hospital, Taichung 40705, Taiwan
| | - Chia-Herng Yue
- Department of Surgery, Tung's Taichung Metro Harbor Hospital, Taichung 435, Taiwan
| | - Ching-Han Yu
- Department of Physiology, School of Medicine, Chung Shan Medical University, Taichung 40201, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Ho Lai
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Chang Gung Medical University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Jer-Tsong Hsieh
- Department of Urology, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA
| | - Ho Lin
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan.
- Program in Translational Medicine and Rong Hsing Research Center for Translational Medicine, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan.
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Cheng HS, Lee JXT, Wahli W, Tan NS. Exploiting vulnerabilities of cancer by targeting nuclear receptors of stromal cells in tumor microenvironment. Mol Cancer 2019; 18:51. [PMID: 30925918 PMCID: PMC6441226 DOI: 10.1186/s12943-019-0971-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2018] [Accepted: 02/21/2019] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumor microenvironment is a complex and dynamic cellular community comprising the tumor epithelium and various tumor-supporting cells such as immune cells, fibroblasts, immunosuppressive cells, adipose cells, endothelial cells, and pericytes. The interplay between the tumor microenvironment and tumor cells represents a key contributor to immune evasiveness, physiological hardiness and the local and systemic invasiveness of malignant cells. Nuclear receptors are master regulators of physiological processes and are known to play pro-/anti-oncogenic activities in tumor cells. However, the actions of nuclear receptors in tumor-supporting cells have not been widely studied. Given the excellent druggability and extensive regulatory effects of nuclear receptors, understanding their biological functionality in the tumor microenvironment is of utmost importance. Therefore, the present review aims to summarize recent evidence about the roles of nuclear receptors in tumor-supporting cells and their implications for malignant processes such as tumor proliferation, evasion of immune surveillance, angiogenesis, chemotherapeutic resistance, and metastasis. Based on findings derived mostly from cell culture studies and a few in vivo animal cancer models, the functions of VDR, PPARs, AR, ER and GR in tumor-supporting cells are relatively well-characterized. Evidence for other receptors, such as RARβ, RORγ, and FXR, is limited yet promising. Hence, the nuclear receptor signature in the tumor microenvironment may harbor prognostic value. The clinical prospects of a tumor microenvironment-oriented cancer therapy exploiting the nuclear receptors in different tumor-supporting cells are also encouraging. The major challenge, however, lies in the ability to develop a highly specific drug delivery system to facilitate precision medicine in cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Sheng Cheng
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore.
| | - Jeannie Xue Ting Lee
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore
| | - Walter Wahli
- Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.,INRA ToxAlim, UMR1331, Chemin de Tournefeuille, Toulouse Cedex 3, France.,Center for Integrative Genomics, University of Lausanne, Le Génopode, CH-1015, Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Nguan Soon Tan
- School of Biological Sciences, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 60 Nanyang Drive, Singapore, 637551, Singapore. .,Lee Kong Chian School of Medicine, Nanyang Technological University Singapore, 11 Mandalay Road, Singapore, 308232, Singapore.
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3
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Ishii K, Takahashi S, Sugimura Y, Watanabe M. Role of Stromal Paracrine Signals in Proliferative Diseases of the Aging Human Prostate. J Clin Med 2018; 7:jcm7040068. [PMID: 29614830 PMCID: PMC5920442 DOI: 10.3390/jcm7040068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2018] [Revised: 03/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgens are essential for the development, differentiation, growth, and function of the prostate through epithelial–stromal interactions. However, androgen concentrations in the hypertrophic human prostate decrease significantly with age, suggesting an inverse correlation between androgen levels and proliferative diseases of the aging prostate. In elderly males, age- and/or androgen-related stromal remodeling is spontaneously induced, i.e., increased fibroblast and myofibroblast numbers, but decreased smooth muscle cell numbers in the prostatic stroma. These fibroblasts produce not only growth factors, cytokines, and extracellular matrix proteins, but also microRNAs as stromal paracrine signals that stimulate prostate epithelial cell proliferation. Surgical or chemical castration is the standard systemic therapy for patients with advanced prostate cancer. Androgen deprivation therapy induces temporary remission, but the majority of patients eventually progress to castration-resistant prostate cancer, which is associated with a high mortality rate. Androgen deprivation therapy-induced stromal remodeling may be involved in the development and progression of castration-resistant prostate cancer. In the tumor microenvironment, activated fibroblasts stimulating prostate cancer cell proliferation are called carcinoma-associated fibroblasts. In this review, we summarize the role of stromal paracrine signals in proliferative diseases of the aging human prostate and discuss the potential clinical applications of carcinoma-associated fibroblast-derived exosomal microRNAs as promising biomarkers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenichiro Ishii
- Department of Oncologic Pathology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
- Department of Nephro-Urologic Surgery and Andrology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
| | - Sanai Takahashi
- Laboratory for Medical Engineering, Division of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Kanagawa 240-8501, Japan.
| | - Yoshiki Sugimura
- Department of Nephro-Urologic Surgery and Andrology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
| | - Masatoshi Watanabe
- Department of Oncologic Pathology, Mie University Graduate School of Medicine, Tsu, Mie 514-8507, Japan.
- Laboratory for Medical Engineering, Division of Materials Science and Chemical Engineering, Graduate School of Engineering, Yokohama National University, Yokohama, Kanagawa 240-8501, Japan.
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Kim Y, Park SE, Moon JW, Kim BM, Kim HG, Jeong IG, Yoo S, Ahn JB, You D, Pak JH, Kim S, Hwang JJ, Kim CS. Downregulation of androgen receptors by NaAsO 2 via inhibition of AKT-NF-κB and HSP90 in castration resistant prostate cancer. Prostate 2017; 77:1128-1136. [PMID: 28556958 DOI: 10.1002/pros.23370] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Androgen and androgen receptor (AR) play essential roles in the development and maintenance of prostate cancer. The recently identified AR splice variants (AR-Vs) have been considered as a plausible mechanism for the primary resistance against androgen deprivation therapy (ADT) in castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC). Sodium meta-arsenite (NaAsO2 ; KML001; Kominox), a trivalent arsenical, is an orally bioavailable and water soluble, which is currently in phase I/II clinical trials for the treatment of prostate cancer. It has a potent anti-cancer effect on prostate cancer cells and xenografts. The aim of this study was to examine the effect of NaAsO2 on AR signaling in LNCaP and 22Rv1 CRPC cells. METHODS We used hormone-sensitive LNCaP cells, hormone-insensitive 22Rv1 cells, and CRPC patient-derived primary cells. We analyzed anti-cancer effect of NaAsO2 using real-time quantitative reverse transcription-PCR, Western blotting, immunofluorescence staining and CellTiter Glo® luminescent assay. Statistical evaluation of the results was performed by one-way ANOVA. RESULTS NaAsO2 significantly reduced the translocation of AR and AR-Vs to the nucleus as well as their level in LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells. Besides, the level of the prostate-specific antigen (PSA), downstream target gene of AR, was also decreased. This compound was also an effective modulator of AKT-dependent NF-κB activation which regulates AR. NaAsO2 significantly inhibited phosphorylation of AKT and expression and nuclear translocation of NF-κB. We then investigated the effect of NaAsO2 on AR stabilization. NaAsO2 promoted HSP90 acetylation by down-regulating HDAC6, which reduces the stability of AR in prostate cancer cells. CONCLUSIONS Here, we show that NaAsO2 disrupts AR signaling at multiple levels by affecting AR expression, stability, and degradation in primary tumor cell cultures from prostate cancer patients as well as CRPC cell lines. These results suggest that NaAsO2 could be a novel therapeutics for prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yunlim Kim
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
- Institute for Innovative Cancer Research, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sang Eun Park
- Institute for Innovative Cancer Research, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jeong-Weon Moon
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Bong-Min Kim
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Ha-Gyeong Kim
- Institute for Innovative Cancer Research, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - In Gab Jeong
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sangjun Yoo
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jae Beom Ahn
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Dalsan You
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jhang Ho Pak
- Asan Institute for Life Science, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Convergence Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Sujong Kim
- Pharmaceutical Division, Komipharm International Co., Ltd., Shiheung, Korea
- Graduate School of Biomedical Science and Engineering, Hanyang University, Seoul, Korea
| | - Jung Jin Hwang
- Institute for Innovative Cancer Research, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
- Department of Convergence Medicine, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Seoul, Korea
| | - Choung-Soo Kim
- Department of Urology, University of Ulsan College of Medicine, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
- Institute for Innovative Cancer Research, Asan Medical Center, Seoul, Korea
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5
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Hu J, Wang G, Sun T. Dissecting the roles of the androgen receptor in prostate cancer from molecular perspectives. Tumour Biol 2017; 39:1010428317692259. [PMID: 28475016 DOI: 10.1177/1010428317692259] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor plays a pivotal role in prostate cancer progression, and androgen deprivation therapy to intercept androgen receptor signal pathway is an indispensable treatment for most advanced prostate cancer patients to delay cancer progression. However, the emerging of castration-resistant prostate cancer reminds us the alteration of androgen receptor, which includes androgen receptor mutation, the formation of androgen receptor variants, and androgen receptor distribution in cancer cells. In this review, we introduce the process of androgen receptor and also its variants' formation, translocation, and function alteration by protein modification or interaction with other pathways. We dissect the roles of androgen receptor in prostate cancer from molecular perspective to provide clues for battling prostate cancer, especially castration-resistant prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieping Hu
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Gongxian Wang
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
| | - Ting Sun
- Department of Urology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Nanchang University, Nanchang, China
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6
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AR Signaling in Breast Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9030021. [PMID: 28245550 PMCID: PMC5366816 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9030021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 77] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/05/2016] [Revised: 02/13/2017] [Accepted: 02/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR, a member of the steroid hormone receptor family) status has become increasingly important as both a prognostic marker and potential therapeutic target in breast cancer. AR is expressed in up to 90% of estrogen receptor (ER) positive breast cancer, and to a lesser degree, human epidermal growth factor 2 (HER2) amplified tumors. In the former, AR signaling has been correlated with a better prognosis given its inhibitory activity in estrogen dependent disease, though conversely has also been shown to increase resistance to anti-estrogen therapies such as tamoxifen. AR blockade can mitigate this resistance, and thus serves as a potential target in ER-positive breast cancer. In HER2 amplified breast cancer, studies are somewhat conflicting, though most show either no effect or are associated with poorer survival. Much of the available data on AR signaling is in triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC), which is an aggressive disease with inferior outcomes comparative to other breast cancer subtypes. At present, there are no approved targeted therapies in TNBC, making study of the AR signaling pathway compelling. Gene expression profiling studies have also identified a luminal androgen receptor (LAR) subtype that is dependent on AR signaling in TNBC. Regardless, there seems to be an association between AR expression and improved outcomes in TNBC. Despite lower pathologic complete response (pCR) rates with neoadjuvant therapy, patients with AR-expressing TNBC have been shown to have a better prognosis than those that are AR-negative. Clinical studies targeting AR have shown somewhat promising results. In this paper we review the literature on the biology of AR in breast cancer and its prognostic and predictive roles. We also present our thoughts on therapeutic strategies.
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7
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Leach DA, Buchanan G. Stromal Androgen Receptor in Prostate Cancer Development and Progression. Cancers (Basel) 2017; 9:cancers9010010. [PMID: 28117763 PMCID: PMC5295781 DOI: 10.3390/cancers9010010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2016] [Revised: 01/13/2017] [Accepted: 01/16/2017] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer development and progression is the result of complex interactions between epithelia cells and fibroblasts/myofibroblasts, in a series of dynamic process amenable to regulation by hormones. Whilst androgen action through the androgen receptor (AR) is a well-established component of prostate cancer biology, it has been becoming increasingly apparent that changes in AR signalling in the surrounding stroma can dramatically influence tumour cell behavior. This is reflected in the consistent finding of a strong association between stromal AR expression and patient outcomes. In this review, we explore the relationship between AR signalling in fibroblasts/myofibroblasts and prostate cancer cells in the primary site, and detail the known functions, actions, and mechanisms of fibroblast AR signaling. We conclude with an evidence-based summary of how androgen action in stroma dramatically influences disease progression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien A Leach
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5011, Australia.
- Department of Surgery and Cancer, Imperial College London, Hammersmith Hospital Campus, Du Cane Road, London W12 0NN, UK.
| | - Grant Buchanan
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, The University of Adelaide, Adelaide 5011, Australia.
- Department of Radiation Oncology, Canberra Teaching Hospital, Canberra 2605, Australia.
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8
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Lu H, Wang T, Li J, Fedele C, Liu Q, Zhang J, Jiang Z, Jain D, Iozzo RV, Violette SM, Weinreb PH, Davis RJ, Gioeli D, FitzGerald TJ, Altieri DC, Languino LR. αvβ6 Integrin Promotes Castrate-Resistant Prostate Cancer through JNK1-Mediated Activation of Androgen Receptor. Cancer Res 2016; 76:5163-74. [PMID: 27450452 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-16-0543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Androgen receptor signaling fuels prostate cancer and is a major therapeutic target. However, mechanisms of resistance to therapeutic androgen ablation are not well understood. Here, using a prostate cancer mouse model, Pten(pc-/-), carrying a prostate epithelial-specific Pten deletion, we show that the αvβ6 integrin is required for tumor growth in vivo of castrated as well as of noncastrated mice. We describe a novel signaling pathway that couples the αvβ6 integrin cell surface receptor to androgen receptor via activation of JNK1 and causes increased nuclear localization and activity of androgen receptor. This downstream kinase activation by αvβ6 is specific for JNK1, with no involvement of p38 or ERK kinase. In addition, differential phosphorylation of Akt is not observed under these conditions, nor is cell morphology affected by αvβ6 expression. This pathway, which is specific for αvβ6, because it is not regulated by a different αv-containing integrin, αvβ3, promotes upregulation of survivin, which in turn supports anchorage-independent growth of αvβ6-expressing cells. Consistently, both αvβ6 and survivin are significantly increased in prostatic adenocarcinoma, but are not detected in normal prostatic epithelium. Neither XIAP nor Bcl-2 is affected by αvβ6 expression. In conclusion, we show that αvβ6 expression is required for prostate cancer progression, including castrate-resistant prostate cancer; mechanistically, by promoting activation of JNK1, the αvβ6 integrin causes androgen receptor-increased activity in the absence of androgen and consequent upregulation of survivin. These preclinical results pave the way for further clinical development of αvβ6 antagonists for prostate cancer therapy. Cancer Res; 76(17); 5163-74. ©2016 AACR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Huimin Lu
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Department of Cancer Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Tao Wang
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Jing Li
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Carmine Fedele
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Department of Cancer Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Qin Liu
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Molecular and Cellular Oncogenesis Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Jianzhong Zhang
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Zhong Jiang
- Department of Pathology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Dhanpat Jain
- Department of Pathology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Renato V Iozzo
- Department of Pathology, Anatomy and Cell Biology, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | | | | | - Roger J Davis
- Program in Molecular Medicine and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Daniel Gioeli
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Cancer Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, Virginia
| | - Thomas J FitzGerald
- Department of Radiation Oncology, University of Massachusetts Medical School, Worcester, Massachusetts
| | - Dario C Altieri
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Tumor Microenvironment and Metastasis Program, The Wistar Institute, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
| | - Lucia R Languino
- Prostate Cancer Discovery and Development Program, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. Department of Cancer Biology, Sidney Kimmel Cancer Center, Thomas Jefferson University, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
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9
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Leach DA, Need EF, Toivanen R, Trotta AP, Palethorpe HM, Palenthorpe HM, Tamblyn DJ, Kopsaftis T, England GM, Smith E, Drew PA, Pinnock CB, Lee P, Holst J, Risbridger GP, Chopra S, DeFranco DB, Taylor RA, Buchanan G. Stromal androgen receptor regulates the composition of the microenvironment to influence prostate cancer outcome. Oncotarget 2016; 6:16135-50. [PMID: 25965833 PMCID: PMC4599261 DOI: 10.18632/oncotarget.3873] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/04/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) signaling in stromal cells is important in prostate cancer, yet the mechanisms underpinning stromal AR contribution to disease development and progression remain unclear. Using patient-matched benign and malignant prostate samples, we show a significant association between low AR levels in cancer associated stroma and increased prostate cancer-related death at one, three and five years post-diganosis, and in tissue recombination models with primary prostate cancer cells that low stromal AR decreases castration-induced apoptosis. AR-regulation was found to be different in primary human fibroblasts isolated from adjacent to cancerous and non-cancerous prostate epithelia, and to represent altered activation of myofibroblast pathways involved in cell cycle, adhesion, migration, and the extracellular matrix (ECM). Without AR signaling, the fibroblast-derived ECM loses the capacity to promote attachment of both myofibroblasts and cancer cells, is less able to prevent cell-matrix disruption, and is less likely to impede cancer cell invasion. AR signaling in prostate cancer stroma appears therefore to alter patient outcome by maintaining an ECM microenvironment inhibitory to cancer cell invasion. This paper provides comprehensive insight into AR signaling in the non-epithelial prostate microenvironment, and a resource from which the prognostic and therapeutic implications of stromal AR levels can be further explored.
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Affiliation(s)
- Damien A Leach
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Eleanor F Need
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Roxanne Toivanen
- Department of Anatomy and Development, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Andrew P Trotta
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Helen M Palethorpe
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Helen M Palenthorpe
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | | | - Tina Kopsaftis
- Urology Unit, Repatriation General Hospital, SA, Australia
| | - Georgina M England
- Department of Surgical Pathology, SA Pathology at Flinders Medical Centre, SA, Australia
| | - Eric Smith
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
| | - Paul A Drew
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia.,School of Nursing and Midwifery, Flinders University, Bedford Park, SA, Australia
| | | | - Peng Lee
- Department of Pathology and Urology, New York University, NY, USA
| | - Jeff Holst
- Origins of Cancer Laboratory, Centenary Institute, NSW, Australia.,Sydney Medical School, University of Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Gail P Risbridger
- Department of Anatomy and Development, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Samarth Chopra
- Urology Unit, Repatriation General Hospital, SA, Australia.,Department of Urology, St Vincent's Hospital, Sydney and Garvan Institute, NSW, Australia
| | - Donald B DeFranco
- Department of Pharmacology and Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, PA, USA
| | - Renea A Taylor
- Department of Anatomy and Development, Monash University, VIC, Australia.,Department of Physiology, Monash University, VIC, Australia
| | - Grant Buchanan
- The Basil Hetzel Institute for Translational Health Research, University of Adelaide, SA, Australia
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10
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Fibroblasts prolong serum prostate-specific antigen decline after androgen deprivation therapy in prostate cancer. J Transl Med 2016; 96:338-49. [PMID: 26641067 DOI: 10.1038/labinvest.2015.136] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2015] [Revised: 09/29/2015] [Accepted: 10/08/2015] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
In patients with prostate cancer (PCa), serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) is a useful marker for evaluating the effects of androgen deprivation therapy (ADT). Intuitively, most urologists expect that a more rapid PSA decline in response to ADT would be positively associated with extended survival. Recently, we have reported that prolonged gradual serum PSA decline after ADT is strongly associated with favorable prognosis in PCa patients, however, the mechanism remains unknown. We investigated the role of fibroblasts in serum PSA decline after ADT. We performed in vitro experiments using androgen-sensitive, androgen receptor (AR)-positive prostate epithelial cell lines (LNCaP, 22Rv1, and RWPE-1 cells), commercially available prostate stromal cells (PrSC), and primary cultures of prostate fibroblasts (pcPrFs). In LNCaP and 22Rv1 cells, PSA production was increased by co-culture with fibroblasts under androgen-deprived conditions. In an in vivo model using LNCaP cells, serum PSA declined rapidly after ADT becoming undetectable within 14 days in mice inoculated with LNCaP cells alone. In contrast, when LNCaP cells were co-inoculated with fibroblasts, serum PSA levels were still high on 14 days post ADT and did not drop to undetectable levels until 21 days post ADT. Tumor volumes and Ki67 labeling indices were not altered between days 14 and 21 post ADT in mice inoculated with LNCaP cells; however, those in mice inoculated with LNCaP cells plus fibroblasts decreased gradually. PSA protein was detected in all tumors on 21 days post ADT by immunohistochemical staining. Microvessel densities were higher on 14 days post ADT for tumors from mice inoculated with LNCaP cells plus fibroblasts as compared with LNCaP cells alone. In summary, co-inoculation of fibroblasts with LNCaP cells prolonged serum PSA decline after ADT and enhanced the efficacy of ADT. Prolonged serum PSA decline may indicate the presence of protective fibroblasts that preserve the AR dependence of PCa cells, improving treatment efficacy.
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11
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Naderi A. Prolactin-induced protein in breast cancer. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2015; 846:189-200. [PMID: 25472539 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-12114-7_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
Prolactin-induced protein (PIP) is a 17-kDa single polypeptide chain that is secreted by a number of normal apocrine cells, such as milk, saliva, and seminal fluid. PIP is widely expressed in breast cancer and is commonly used as a diagnostic biomarker for the histopathological diagnosis of this disease. Expression of PIP in breast cancer is regulated by androgen and prolactin through a number of transcription factors and signaling cross-talks, including STAT5, Runx2, and CREB1. Notably, PIP is induced by a positive feedback loop between androgen receptor (AR) and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). The available data indicate that PIP has an aspartyl protease activity that can degrade fibronectin. Importantly, PIP is necessary for outside-in activation of integrin-β1 signaling pathway and regulation of key downstream signaling targets of this pathway such as interaction of integrin-β1 with integrin-linked kinase 1 (ILK1) and ErbB2. Furthermore, the importance of PIP in cell proliferation has been demonstrated by the fact that purified PIP promotes growth of breast cancer cells and PIP expression is necessary for the proliferation of T-47D and MDA-MB-453 cell lines. In addition to cell proliferation, PIP mediates invasion of breast cancer cells in a process that partially depends on the degradation of fibronectin by this protein. Therefore, PIP is a breast cancer-related protein that is expressed in a majority of breast tumors and has a significant function in the biology of this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Naderi
- Holden Comprehensive Cancer Center, University of Iowa, 3202 MERF, 375 Newton Road, 52242, Iowa City, IA, USA,
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12
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Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) signaling is vital to the development and function of the prostate and is a key pathway in prostate cancer. AR is differentially expressed in the stroma and epithelium, with both paracrine and autocrine control throughout the prostate. Stromal-epithelial interactions within the prostate are commonly dependent on AR signaling and expression. Alterations in these pathways can promote tumorigenesis. AR is also expressed in normal and malignant mammary tissues. Emerging data indicate a role for AR in certain subtypes of breast cancer that has the potential to be exploited therapeutically. The aim of this review is to highlight the importance of these interactions in normal development and tumorigenesis, with a focus on the prostate and breast.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cera M Nieto
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Leah C Rider
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
| | - Scott D Cramer
- Department of PharmacologyUniversity of Colorado Anschutz Medical Campus, Aurora, Colorado, USA
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13
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Yamamichi F, Shigemura K, Behnsawy HM, Meligy FY, Huang WC, Li X, Yamanaka K, Hanioka K, Miyake H, Tanaka K, Kawabata M, Shirakawa T, Fujisawa M. Sonic hedgehog and androgen signaling in tumor and stromal compartments drives epithelial-mesenchymal transition in prostate cancer. Scand J Urol 2014; 48:523-32. [PMID: 25356787 DOI: 10.3109/21681805.2014.898336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling, androgens and epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) are related to prostate cancer (PCa) progression. The aim of this study was to investigate how Shh and androgen [dihydrotestosterone (DHT)] signaling act in prostate epithelial and stromal compartments and whether this signaling pathway drives EMT and promotes PCa progression. MATERIAL AND METHODS LNCaP, normal prostate fibroblast (NPF) and cancer-associated prostate fibroblast (CPF) cells were studied with DHT and/or the Shh signaling inhibitor cyclopamine. Real-time reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) was performed to evaluate the expressions of a potential Shh target gene, osteonectin (ON) and EMT-associated markers (E-cadherin, N-cadherin and vimentin). Immunohistochemical studies using PCa prostatectomy samples were performed to assess the expression levels of ON, Gli-1, androgen receptor, Shh, E-cadherin, N-cadherin and vimentin. RESULTS While DHT enhanced cell proliferation in CPF more than LNCaP or NPF, cyclopamine inhibited cell proliferation enhanced by DHT in CPF. Real-time RT-PCR showed whereas both Shh and DHT induced N-cadherin and vimentin, DHT also induced the expression of osteonectin in LNCaP and cyclopamine blocked these expressions in osteonectin, N-cadherin and vimentin (p = 0.0084, 0.0002 and 0.0373, respectively). Immunohistochemistry showed that high expression of stromal, but, not epithelial, ON was significantly correlated with serum prostate-specific antigen (PSA) (p = 0.031), and high expression of Gli-1 and low expression of stromal ON with PSA recurrence (p = 0.0114 and p = 0.0005, respectively). CONCLUSIONS Shh and androgen signaling in prostate tumor and stromal compartments drives EMT, and thus may play some role in PCa progression. Cyclopamine may be one therapeutic strategy for PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fukashi Yamamichi
- Department of Urology, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine , Kobe , Japan
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14
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Daniels G, Pei Z, Logan SK, Lee P. Mini-review: androgen receptor phosphorylation in prostate cancer. AMERICAN JOURNAL OF CLINICAL AND EXPERIMENTAL UROLOGY 2013; 1:25-29. [PMID: 25374897 PMCID: PMC4219286] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/12/2013] [Accepted: 12/15/2013] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Androgen receptor (AR) plays an important role in the tumorigenesis and progression of prostate cancer (PCa), and is the primary therapeutic target for PCa treatment. AR activity can be regulated via phosphorylation at multiple phosphorylation sites within the protein. Modifications by phosphorylation alter AR function, including its cellular localization, stability and transcriptional activity, ultimately leading to changes in cancer cell biology and disease progression. Here we present a brief overview of AR phosphorylation sites in PCa, focusing on functional roles of phospho-AR (p-AR) species, relevance in PCa disease progression, and potential as biomarkers and/or therapeutic targets through the use of kinase inhibitors. Additionally, recent evidence has shown the important role of AR activity in the cancer associated stroma on PCa growth and progression. The phosphorylation status of epithelial and stromal AR may be distinct; however, the current data available on stromal AR phosphorylation is limited. Further research will determine global view on the synergistic effects of phosphorylation across multiple AR sites in both epithelial and stromal cells and validate whether together they can be used as prognostic markers and/or effective therapeutic targets for PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garrett Daniels
- Department of Pathology, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
| | - Zhiheng Pei
- Department of Pathology, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
- NYU Cancer Institute, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
- New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
| | - Susan K Logan
- Department of Urology, New York University School of Medicine, New YorkNY, USA
- Department of Pharmacology, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
- NYU Cancer Institute, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
| | - Peng Lee
- Department of Pathology, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
- Department of Urology, New York University School of Medicine, New YorkNY, USA
- NYU Cancer Institute, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
- New York Harbor Healthcare System, New York University School of MedicineNew York, NY, USA
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15
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Amin KS, Jagadeesh S, Baishya G, Rao PG, Barua NC, Bhattacharya S, Banerjee PP. A naturally derived small molecule disrupts ligand-dependent and ligand-independent androgen receptor signaling in human prostate cancer cells. Mol Cancer Ther 2013; 13:341-52. [PMID: 24258347 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-13-0478] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Continued reliance on androgen receptor (AR) signaling is a hallmark of prostate cancer, including the development of castration-resistant prostate cancer (CRPC), making it an attractive therapeutic target for prostate cancer treatment. Mahanine is a novel carbazole alkaloid derived from the leaves of Murraya koenigii, commonly known as the curry leaf plant, which grows widely across East-Asia. We show here that mahanine possesses the ability to inhibit ligand-dependent and -independent AR transactivation, leading to a prominent decline in AR target gene expression. Mahanine treatment causes a time- and dose-dependent decline in AR protein levels, including truncated AR splice variants, in a panel of androgen-responsive and -independent prostate cancer cells. The decrease in AR levels induced by mahanine occurs posttranslationally by proteasomal degradation, without any change in the AR gene expression. Mahanine treatment induces an outward movement of the AR from the nucleus to the cytoplasm, leading to an initial increase in cytoplasmic AR levels, followed by a gradual decline in the AR levels in both cellular compartments. Ligand-induced AR phosphorylation at Ser-81, a phospho-site associated with prostate cancer cell growth and AR transactivity, is greatly diminished in the presence of mahanine. The decline in AR phosphorylation at Ser-81 by mahanine occurs via the inactivation of mitotic kinase CDK1. Collectively, our data demonstrate that mahanine strongly disrupts AR signaling and inhibits the growth of androgen-dependent and -independent prostate cancer cells, thereby implicating a therapeutic role of mahanine in prostate cancer treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karishma S Amin
- Corresponding Author: Partha P. Banerjee, Department of Biochemistry and Molecular & Cellular Biology, Georgetown University Medical Center, 3900 Reservoir Road, NW, Washington, DC 20057.
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16
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Androgen receptor phosphorylation at serine 308 and serine 791 predicts enhanced survival in castrate resistant prostate cancer patients. Int J Mol Sci 2013; 14:16656-71. [PMID: 23945560 PMCID: PMC3759930 DOI: 10.3390/ijms140816656] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2013] [Revised: 07/22/2013] [Accepted: 07/26/2013] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
We previously reported that AR phosphorylation at serine 213 was associated with poor outcome and may contribute to prostate cancer development and progression. This study investigates if specific AR phosphorylation sites have differing roles in the progression of hormone naïve prostate cancer (HNPC) to castrate resistant disease (CRPC). A panel of phosphospecific antibodies were employed to study AR phosphorylation in 84 matched HNPC and CRPC tumours. Immunohistochemistry measured Androgen receptor expression phosphorylated at serine residues 94 (pAR94), 308 (pAR308), 650(pAR650) and 791 (pAR791). No correlations with clinical parameters were observed for pAR94 or pAR650 in HNPC or CRPC tumours. In contrast to our previous observation with serine 213, high pAR308 is significantly associated with a longer time to disease specific death (p = 0.011) and high pAR791 expression significantly associated with a longer time to disease recurrence (p = 0.018) in HNPC tumours and longer time to death from disease recurrence (p = 0.040) in CRPC tumours. This observation in CRPC tumours was attenuated in high apoptotic tumours (p = 0.022) and low proliferating tumours (p = 0.004). These results demonstrate that understanding the differing roles of AR phosphorylation is necessary before this can be exploited as a target for castrate resistant prostate cancer.
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17
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Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) has been identified for decades and mediates essential steroid functions. Like most of biological molecules, AR functional activities are modulated by post-translational modifications. This review is focused on the reported activities and significance of AR phosphorylation, with particular emphasis on proline-directed serine/threonine phosphorylation that occurs predominantly on the receptor. The marked enrichment of AR phosphorylation in the most diverse N-terminal domain suggests that targeting AR phosphorylation can be synergistic to antagonizing the C-terminal domain by clinical antiandrogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yanfei Gao
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School 330 Brookline, MA 02115, USA
| | - Shaoyong Chen
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School 330 Brookline, MA 02115, USA
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18
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Androgen receptor phosphorylation at serine 515 by Cdk1 predicts biochemical relapse in prostate cancer patients. Br J Cancer 2012; 108:139-48. [PMID: 23321516 PMCID: PMC3553508 DOI: 10.1038/bjc.2012.480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Prostate cancer cell growth is dependent upon androgen receptor (AR) activation, which is regulated by specific kinases. The aim of the current study is to establish if AR phosphorylation by Cdk1 or ERK1/2 is of prognostic significance. Methods: Scansite 2.0 was utilised to predict which AR sites are phosphorylated by Cdk1 and ERK1/2. Immunohistochemistry for these sites was then performed on 90 hormone-naive prostate cancer specimens. The interaction between Cdk1/ERK1/2 and AR phosphorylation was investigated in vitro using LNCaP cells. Results: Phosphorylation of AR at serine 515 (pARS515) and PSA at diagnosis were independently associated with decreased time to biochemical relapse. Cdk1 and pCdk1161, but not ERK1/2, correlated with pARS515. High expression of pARS515 in patients with a PSA at diagnosis of ⩽20 ng ml−1 was associated with shorter time to biochemical relapse (P=0.019). This translated into a reduction in disease-specific survival (10-year survival, 38.1% vs 100%, P<0.001). In vitro studies demonstrated that treatment with Roscovitine (a Cdk inhibitor) caused a reduction in pCdk1161 expression, pARS515expression and cellular proliferation. Conclusion: In prostate cancer patients with PSA at diagnosis of ⩽20 ng ml−1, phosphorylation of AR at serine 515 by Cdk1 may be an independent prognostic marker.
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19
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Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is a key molecule in prostate cancer and Kennedy's disease. Understanding the regulatory mechanisms of this steroid receptor is important in the development of potential therapies for these diseases. One layer of AR regulation is provided by post-translational modifications including phosphorylation, acetylation, sumoylation, ubiquitination and methylation. While these modifications have mostly been studied as individual events, it is becoming clear that these modifications can functionally interact with each other in a signalling pathway. In this review, the effects of all modifications are described with a focus on interplay between them and the functional consequences for the AR.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelly Coffey
- Solid Tumour Target Discovery Group, The Medical School, Newcastle Cancer Centre at the Northern Institute for Cancer Research, Newcastle University, Framlington Place, Newcastle upon Tyne, Tyne and Wear, UK
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20
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Lescarbeau RM, Seib FP, Prewitz M, Werner C, Kaplan DL. In vitro model of metastasis to bone marrow mediates prostate cancer castration resistant growth through paracrine and extracellular matrix factors. PLoS One 2012; 7:e40372. [PMID: 22870197 PMCID: PMC3411611 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0040372] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2012] [Accepted: 06/07/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
The spread of prostate cancer cells to the bone marrow microenvironment and castration resistant growth are key steps in disease progression and significant sources of morbidity. However, the biological significance of mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) and bone marrow derived extracellular matrix (BM-ECM) in this process is not fully understood. We therefore established an in vitro engineered bone marrow tissue model that incorporates hMSCs and BM-ECM to facilitate mechanistic studies of prostate cancer cell survival in androgen-depleted media in response to paracrine factors and BM-ECM. hMSC-derived paracrine factors increased LNCaP cell survival, which was in part attributed to IGFR and IL6 signaling. In addition, BM-ECM increased LNCaP and MDA-PCa-2b cell survival in androgen-depleted conditions, and induced chemoresistance and morphological changes in LNCaPs. To determine the effect of BM-ECM on cell signaling, the phosphorylation status of 46 kinases was examined. Increases in the phosphorylation of MAPK pathway-related proteins as well as sustained Akt phosphorylation were observed in BM-ECM cultures when compared to cultures grown on plasma-treated polystyrene. Blocking MEK1/2 or the PI3K pathway led to a significant reduction in LNCaP survival when cultured on BM-ECM in androgen-depleted conditions. The clinical relevance of these observations was determined by analyzing Erk phosphorylation in human bone metastatic prostate cancer versus non-metastatic prostate cancer, and increased phosphorylation was seen in the metastatic samples. Here we describe an engineered bone marrow model that mimics many features observed in patients and provides a platform for mechanistic in vitro studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Reynald M. Lescarbeau
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - F. Philipp Seib
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
| | - Marina Prewitz
- Leibniz Institute for Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Carsten Werner
- Leibniz Institute for Polymer Research Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - David L. Kaplan
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Tufts University, Medford, Massachusetts, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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21
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Shigemura K, Huang WC, Li X, Zhau HE, Zhu G, Gotoh A, Fujisawa M, Xie J, Marshall FF, Chung LWK. Active sonic hedgehog signaling between androgen independent human prostate cancer cells and normal/benign but not cancer-associated prostate stromal cells. Prostate 2011; 71:1711-22. [PMID: 21520153 PMCID: PMC3680511 DOI: 10.1002/pros.21388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2010] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling plays a pivotal role in stromal-epithelial interaction during normal development but its role in tumor-stromal interaction during carcinogenic progression is less well defined. Since hormone refractory prostate cancer with bone metastasis is difficult to treat, it is crucial to investigate how androgen independent (AI) human prostate cancer cells communicate with their associated stroma. METHODS Shh and its target transcription factor, Gli1 mRNA, were assessed by RT-PCR and/or quantitative RT-PCR in co-cultured cell recombinants comprised of AI C4-2 either with NPF (prostate fibroblasts from normal/benign prostate gland) or CPF (cancer-associated stromal fibroblasts) under Shh/cyclopamine (a hedgehog signaling inhibitor) treatment. Human bone marrow stromal (HS27A) cells were used as controls. In vivo investigation was performed by checking serum PSA and immunohistochemical staining for the apoptosis-associated M30 gene in mice bearing chimeric C4-2/NPF tumors. RESULTS We found that (1) Shh has minimal growth-stimulating effects on prostate cancer cells, but it stimulated the growth of NPF but not CPF; (2) active Shh signaling was found between AI C4-2 cells and NPF but not CPF; and (3) osteonectin (ON) is a Gli1 target gene in NPF and not in CPF, and ON up-regulation in NPF can be blocked by cyclopamine CONCLUSIONS Based on co-culture and chimeric tumor models, active Shh-mediated signaling was demonstrated between AI prostate cancer and NPF in a paracrine- and tumor progression-dependent manner. Our study suggests that drugs like cyclopamine that interfere with Shh signaling could be beneficial in preventing AI progression in prostate cancer cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katsumi Shigemura
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Division of Urology, Department of Organ Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Wen-Chin Huang
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048
| | - Xiangyan Li
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048
| | - Haiyen E. Zhau
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048
| | - Guodong Zhu
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Akinobu Gotoh
- Laboratory of Cell and Gene Therapy Institute for Advanced Medical Sciences, Hyogo College of Medicine, Nishinomiya, Japan
| | - Masato Fujisawa
- Division of Urology, Department of Organ Therapeutics, Faculty of Medicine, Kobe University Graduate School of Medicine, Kobe, Japan
| | - Jingwu Xie
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Sealy Center for Cancer Cell Biology, University of Texas at Galveston, Galveston, TX 77555
| | - Fray F. Marshall
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
| | - Leland W. K. Chung
- Molecular Urology and Therapeutics Program, Department of Urology, Winship Cancer Institute, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322
- Department of Medicine, Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048
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22
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Hsu FN, Chen MC, Chiang MC, Lin E, Lee YT, Huang PH, Lee GS, Lin H. Regulation of androgen receptor and prostate cancer growth by cyclin-dependent kinase 5. J Biol Chem 2011; 286:33141-9. [PMID: 21799006 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m111.252080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Prostate cancer is the most frequently diagnosed male malignancy. The normal prostate development and prostate cancer progression are mediated by androgen receptor (AR). Recently, the roles of cyclin-dependent kinase 5 (Cdk5) and its activator, p35, in cancer biology are explored one after another. We have previously demonstrated that Cdk5 may regulate proliferation of thyroid cancer cells. In addition, we also identify that Cdk5 overactivation can be triggered by drug treatments and leads to apoptosis of prostate cancer cells. The aim of this study is to investigate how Cdk5 regulates AR activation and growth of prostate cancer cells. At first, the data show that Cdk5 enables phosphorylation of AR at Ser-81 site through direct biochemical interaction and, therefore, results in the stabilization of AR proteins. The Cdk5-dependent AR stabilization causes accumulation of AR proteins and subsequent activation. Besides, the positive regulations of Cdk5-AR on cell growth are also determined in vitro and in vivo. S81A mutant of AR diminishes its interaction with Cdk5, reduces its nuclear localization, fails to stabilize its protein level, and therefore, decreases prostate cancer cell proliferation. Prostate carcinoma specimens collected from 177 AR-positive patients indicate the significant correlations between the protein levels of AR and Cdk5 or p35. These findings demonstrate that Cdk5 is an important modulator of AR and contributes to prostate cancer growth. Therefore, Cdk5-p35 may be suggested as diagnostic and therapeutic targets for prostate cancer in the near future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Ning Hsu
- Department of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 402, Taiwan
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23
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A feedback loop between androgen receptor and ERK signaling in estrogen receptor-negative breast cancer. Neoplasia 2011; 13:154-66. [PMID: 21403841 DOI: 10.1593/neo.101324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2010] [Revised: 10/14/2010] [Accepted: 10/18/2010] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Estrogen receptor (ER)-negative breast cancer is heterogeneous, and the biology of this disease has remained poorly understood. Molecular apocrine is a subtype of ER-negative breast cancer that is characterized by the overexpression of steroid-response genes such as AR and a high rate of ErbB2 amplification. In this study, we have identified a positive feedback loop between the AR and extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signaling pathways in molecular apocrine breast cancer. In this process, AR regulates ERK phosphorylation and kinase activity. In addition, AR inhibition results in the down-regulation of ERK target proteins phospho-RSK1, phospho-Elk-1, and c-Fos using an in vivo molecular apocrine model. Furthermore, we show that AR-mediated induction of ERK requires ErbB2, and AR activity, in turn, regulates ErbB2 expression as an AR target gene. These findings suggest that ErbB2 is an upstream connector between the AR and ERK signaling pathways. Another feature of this feedback loop is an ERK-mediated regulation of AR. In this respect, the inhibition of ERK phosphorylation reduces AR expression and CREB1-mediated transcriptional regulation of AR acts as a downstream connector between the AR and ERK signaling pathways in molecular apocrine cells. Finally, we demonstrate that AR-positive staining is associated with the overexpression of ERK signaling targets phospho-Elk-1 and c-Fos in ER-negative breast tumors, which further supports a cross-regulation between the AR and ERK signaling pathways in molecular apocrine subtype. This study demonstrates an AR-ERK feedback loop in ER-negative breast cancer with significant biologic and therapeutic implications in this disease.
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24
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Hsu FN, Yang MS, Lin E, Tseng CF, Lin H. The significance of Her2 on androgen receptor protein stability in the transition of androgen requirement in prostate cancer cells. Am J Physiol Endocrinol Metab 2011; 300:E902-8. [PMID: 21364123 DOI: 10.1152/ajpendo.00610.2010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Androgen ablation therapy is the most common strategy for suppressing prostate cancer progression; however, tumor cells eventually escape androgen dependence and progress to an androgen-independent phase. The androgen receptor (AR) plays a pivotal role in this transition. To address this transition mystery in prostate cancer, we established an androgen-independent prostate cancer cell line (LNCaPdcc), by long-term screening of LNCaP cells in androgen-deprived conditions, to investigate changes of molecular mechanisms before and after androgen withdrawal. We found that LNCaPdcc cells displayed a neuroendocrine morphology, less aggressive growth, and lower expression levels of cell cycle-related factors, although the cell cycle distribution was similar to parental LNCaP cells. Notably, higher protein expression of AR, phospho-Ser(81)-AR, and PSA in LNCaPdcc cells were observed. The nuclear distribution and protein stability of AR increased in LNCaPdcc cells. In addition, cell proliferation results exhibited the biphasic nature of the androgen (R1881) effect in two cell lines. On the other hand, LNCaPdcc cells expressed higher levels of Her2, phospho-Tyr(1221/1222)-Her2, ErbB3, and ErbB4 proteins than parental LNCaP cells. These two cell lines exhibited distinct responses to Her2 activation (by heregulin treatment) on Her2 phosphorylation and Her2 inhibition (by AG825 or Herceptin treatments) on proliferation. In addition, the Her2 inhibitor more effectively caused AR degradation and diminished AR Ser(81) phosphorylation in LNCaPdcc cells. Taken together, our data demonstrate that Her2 plays an important role in the support of AR protein stability in the transition of androgen requirement in prostate cancer cells. We hope these findings will provide novel insight into the treatment of hormone-refractory prostate cancer.
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MESH Headings
- Androgens/pharmacology
- Androgens/physiology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal/pharmacology
- Antibodies, Monoclonal, Humanized
- Antineoplastic Agents/pharmacology
- Benzothiazoles/pharmacology
- Blotting, Western
- Cell Cycle/physiology
- Cell Line
- Cell Survival/physiology
- Cells, Cultured
- Humans
- Male
- Metribolone/pharmacology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- Protein-Tyrosine Kinases/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, ErbB-2/antagonists & inhibitors
- Receptor, ErbB-2/genetics
- Receptor, ErbB-2/physiology
- Receptors, Androgen/drug effects
- Receptors, Androgen/metabolism
- Trastuzumab
- Trypan Blue
- Tyrphostins/pharmacology
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Affiliation(s)
- Fu-Ning Hsu
- Dept. of Life Sciences, National Chung Hsing University, 250 Kuo Kuang Rd., Taichung 40227, Taiwan
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25
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Bhardwaj A, Singh S, Srivastava SK, Honkanen RE, Reed E, Singh AP. Modulation of protein phosphatase 2A activity alters androgen-independent growth of prostate cancer cells: therapeutic implications. Mol Cancer Ther 2011; 10:720-31. [PMID: 21393425 DOI: 10.1158/1535-7163.mct-10-1096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Earlier we identified PPP2CA, which encodes for the α-isoform of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A) catalytic subunit, as one of the downregulated genes in androgen-independent prostate cancer. PP2A is a serine/threonine phosphatase and a potent tumor suppressor involved in broad cellular functions; however, its role in prostate cancer has not yet been determined. Here, we have investigated the effect of PP2A activity modulation on the androgen-independent growth of prostate cancer cells. Our data show that the PPP2CA expression and PP2A activity is downregulated in androgen-independent (C4-2) prostate cancer cells as compared with androgen-dependent (LNCaP) cells. Downregulation of PP2A activity by pharmacologic inhibition or short interfering RNA-mediated PPP2CA silencing sustains the growth of LNCaP cells under an androgen-deprived condition by relieving the androgen deprivation-induced cell-cycle arrest and preventing apoptosis. Immunoblot analyses reveal enhanced phosphorylation of Akt, extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), BAD, increased expression of cyclins (A1/D1), and decreased expression of cyclin inhibitor (p27) on PP2A downregulation. Furthermore, our data show that androgen receptor (AR) signaling is partially maintained in PP2A-inhibited cells through increased AR expression and ligand-independent phosphorylation. Pharmacologic inhibition of Akt, ERK, and AR suggest a role of these signaling pathways in facilitating the androgen-independent growth of LNCaP cells. These observations are supported by the effect of ceramide, a PP2A activator, on androgen-independent C4-2 cells. Ceramide inhibited the growth of C4-2 cells on androgen deprivation, an effect that could be abrogated by PP2A downregulation. Altogether, our findings suggest that modulation of PP2A activity may represent an alternative therapeutic approach for the treatment of advanced androgen-independent prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arun Bhardwaj
- Department of Oncologic Sciences Mitchell Cancer Institute, University of South Alabama 1660 Springhill Avenue, Mobile, AL 36604, USA
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Tanner MJ, Welliver RC, Chen M, Shtutman M, Godoy A, Smith G, Mian BM, Buttyan R. Effects of androgen receptor and androgen on gene expression in prostate stromal fibroblasts and paracrine signaling to prostate cancer cells. PLoS One 2011; 6:e16027. [PMID: 21267466 PMCID: PMC3022749 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0016027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2010] [Accepted: 12/02/2010] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The androgen receptor (AR) is expressed in a subset of prostate stromal cells and functional stromal cell AR is required for normal prostate developmental and influences the growth of prostate tumors. Although we are broadly aware of the specifics of the genomic actions of AR in prostate cancer cells, relatively little is known regarding the gene targets of functional AR in prostate stromal cells. Here, we describe a novel human prostate stromal cell model that enabled us to study the effects of AR on gene expression in these cells. The model involves a genetically manipulated variant of immortalized human WPMY-1 prostate stromal cells that overexpresses wildtype AR (WPMY-AR) at a level comparable to LNCaP cells and is responsive to dihydrotestosterone (DHT) stimulation. Use of WPMY-AR cells for gene expression profiling showed that the presence of AR, even in the absence of DHT, significantly altered the gene expression pattern of the cells compared to control (WPMY-Vec) cells. Treatment of WPMY-AR cells, but not WPMY-Vec control cells, with DHT resulted in further changes that affected the expression of 141 genes by 2-fold or greater compared to vehicle treated WPMY-AR cells. Remarkably, DHT significantly downregulated more genes than were upregulated but many of these changes reversed the initial effects of AR overexpression alone on individual genes. The genes most highly effected by DHT treatment were categorized based upon their role in cancer pathways or in cell signaling pathways (transforming growth factor-β, Wnt, Hedgehog and MAP Kinase) thought to be involved in stromal-epithelial crosstalk during prostate or prostate cancer development. DHT treatment of WPMY-AR cells was also sufficient to alter their paracrine potential for prostate cancer cells as conditioned medium from DHT-treated WPMY-AR significantly increased growth of LNCaP cells compared to DHT-treated WPMY-Vec cell conditioned medium.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matthew J. Tanner
- Ordway Research Institute, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - R. Charles Welliver
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
- Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Mengqian Chen
- Ordway Research Institute, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Michael Shtutman
- Ordway Research Institute, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Alejandro Godoy
- Department of Urology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Gary Smith
- Department of Urology, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, New York, United States of America
| | - Badar M. Mian
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
- Stratton Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Albany, New York, United States of America
| | - Ralph Buttyan
- Ordway Research Institute, Albany, New York, United States of America
- Division of Urology, Department of Surgery, Albany Medical College, Albany, New York, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Karlou M, Tzelepi V, Efstathiou E. Therapeutic targeting of the prostate cancer microenvironment. Nat Rev Urol 2011; 7:494-509. [PMID: 20818327 DOI: 10.1038/nrurol.2010.134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 95] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Solid tumors can be thought of as multicellular 'organs' that consist of a variety of cells as well as a scaffold of noncellular matrix. Stromal-epithelial crosstalk is integral to prostate cancer progression and metastasis, and androgen signaling is an important component of this crosstalk at both the primary and metastatic sites. Intratumoral production of androgen is an important mechanism of castration resistance and has been the focus of novel therapeutic approaches with promising results. Various other pathways are important for stromal-epithelial crosstalk and represent attractive candidate therapeutic targets. Hedgehog signaling has been associated with tumor progression, growth and survival, while Src family kinases have been implicated in tumor progression and in regulation of cancer cell migration. Fibroblast growth factors and transforming growth factor beta signaling regulate cell proliferation, apoptosis and angiogenesis in the prostate cancer microenvironment. Integrins mediate communication between the cell and the extracellular matrix, enhancing growth, migration, invasion and metastasis of cancer cells. The contribution of stromal-epithelial crosstalk to prostate cancer initiation and progression provides the impetus for combinatorial microenvironment-targeting strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Karlou
- Department of Genitourinary Medical Oncology, David H. Koch Center for Applied Research of Genitourinary Cancers, The University of Texas M. D. Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX 77230-1439, USA
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MPA-induced gene expression and stromal and parenchymal gene expression profiles in luminal murine mammary carcinomas with different hormonal requirements. Breast Cancer Res Treat 2010; 129:49-67. [DOI: 10.1007/s10549-010-1185-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2010] [Accepted: 09/17/2010] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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