1
|
Song WH, Lim YS, Kim JE, Kang HY, Lee C, Rajbongshi L, Hwang SY, Oh SO, Kim BS, Lee D, Song YJ, Yoon S. A Marine Collagen-Based 3D Scaffold for In Vitro Modeling of Human Prostate Cancer Niche and Anti-Cancer Therapeutic Discovery. Mar Drugs 2024; 22:295. [PMID: 39057404 PMCID: PMC11277582 DOI: 10.3390/md22070295] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2024] [Revised: 06/25/2024] [Accepted: 06/25/2024] [Indexed: 07/28/2024] Open
Abstract
Recently, the need to develop a robust three-dimensional (3D) cell culture system that serves as a valuable in vitro tumor model has been emphasized. This system should closely mimic the tumor growth behaviors observed in vivo and replicate the key elements and characteristics of human tumors for the effective discovery and development of anti-tumor therapeutics. Therefore, in this study, we developed an effective 3D in vitro model of human prostate cancer (PC) using a marine collagen-based biomimetic 3D scaffold. The model displayed distinctive molecular profiles and cellular properties compared with those of the 2D PC cell culture. This was evidenced by (1) increased cell proliferation, migration, invasion, colony formation, and chemoresistance; (2) upregulated expression of crucial multidrug-resistance- and cancer-stemness-related genes; (3) heightened expression of key molecules associated with malignant progressions, such as epithelial-mesenchymal transition transcription factors, Notch, matrix metalloproteinases, and pluripotency biomarkers; (4) robust enrichment of prostate cancer stem cells (CSCs); and (5) enhanced expression of integrins. These results suggest that our 3D in vitro PC model has the potential to serve as a research platform for studying PC and prostate CSC biology, as well as for screening novel therapies targeting PC and prostate CSCs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Won Hoon Song
- Department of Urology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital and Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| | - Ye Seon Lim
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| | - Ji-Eun Kim
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| | - Hae Yeong Kang
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
| | - Changyong Lee
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| | - Lata Rajbongshi
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| | - Seon Yeong Hwang
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
| | - Sae-Ock Oh
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
| | - Byoung Soo Kim
- School of Biomedical Convergence Engineering, Pusan National University, Yangsan 50612, Republic of Korea;
| | - Dongjun Lee
- Department of Convergence Medicine, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 50612, Republic of Korea;
| | - Yong Jung Song
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Pusan National University Yangsan Hospital and Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea
| | - Sik Yoon
- Department of Anatomy and Convergence Medical Sciences, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea; (Y.S.L.); (J.-E.K.); (H.Y.K.); (C.L.); (L.R.); (S.Y.H.); (S.-O.O.)
- Immune Reconstitution Research Center of Medical Research Institute, Pusan National University College of Medicine, Yangsan 626-870, Republic of Korea;
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Jovanovic E, Babic T, Dragicevic S, Kmezic S, Nikolic A. Transcript CD81-215 may be a long noncoding RNA of stromal origin with tumor-promoting role in colon cancer. Cell Biochem Funct 2023; 41:1503-1513. [PMID: 38014564 DOI: 10.1002/cbf.3890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2023] [Revised: 11/13/2023] [Accepted: 11/15/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
The role of tetraspanin CD81 in malignant transformation is best studied in colorectal cancer, and it appears that other transcripts beside the fully coding mRNA may also be dysregulated in malignant cells. Recent data from a comprehensive pan-cancer transcriptome analysis demonstrated differential activity of two alternative CD81 gene promoters in malignant versus nonmalignant gut mucosa. The promoter active in gut mucosa gives rise to transcripts CD81-203 and CD81-213, while the promoter active in colon and rectal cancer gives rise to transcripts CD81-205 and CD81-215. Our study aimed to explore the biomarker potential of the transcripts from the alternative CD81 gene promoters in colon cancer, as well as to investigate their structure and potential function using in silico tools. The analysis of the transcripts' expression in several colon cell lines cultivated in 2D and 3D and a set of colon cancer and healthy gut mucosa samples by qPCR and RNA sequencing suggested their low expression and stromal origin. Expression patterns in tumor and nontumor tissue along with in silico data suppose that the transcript CD81-215 may be a noncoding RNA of stromal origin with possible involvement in signaling related to malignant transformation.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emilija Jovanovic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Tamara Babic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Sandra Dragicevic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Stefan Kmezic
- Clinic for Digestive Surgery, Clinical Center of Serbia, Belgrade, Serbia
| | - Aleksandra Nikolic
- Institute of Molecular Genetics and Genetic Engineering, University of Belgrade, Belgrade, Serbia
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Miller CP, Fung M, Jaeger-Ruckstuhl CA, Xu Y, Warren EH, Akilesh S, Tykodi SS. Therapeutic targeting of tumor spheroids in a 3D microphysiological renal cell carcinoma-on-a-chip system. Neoplasia 2023; 46:100948. [PMID: 37944353 PMCID: PMC10663960 DOI: 10.1016/j.neo.2023.100948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/16/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 10/29/2023] [Indexed: 11/12/2023]
Abstract
Metastatic renal cell carcinoma (RCC) remains an incurable disease for most patients highlighting an urgent need for new treatments. However, the preclinical investigation of new therapies is limited by traditional two-dimensional (2D) cultures which do not recapitulate the properties of tumor cells within a collagen extracellular matrix (ECM), while human tumor xenografts are time-consuming, expensive and lack adaptive immune cells. We report a rapid and economical human microphysiological system ("RCC-on-a-chip") to investigate therapies targeting RCC spheroids in a 3D collagen ECM. We first demonstrate that culture of RCC cell lines A498 and RCC4 in a 3D collagen ECM more faithfully reproduces the gene expression program of primary RCC tumors compared to 2D culture. We next used bortezomib as a cytotoxin to develop automated quantification of dose-dependent tumor spheroid killing. We observed that viable RCC spheroids exhibited collective migration within the ECM and demonstrated that our 3D system can be used to identify compounds that inhibit spheroid collective migration without inducing cell death. Finally, we demonstrate the RCC-on-a-chip as a platform to model the trafficking of tumor-reactive T cells into the ECM and observed antigen-specific A498 spheroid killing by engineered human CD8+ T cells expressing an ROR1-specific chimeric antigen receptor. In summary, the phenotypic differences between the 3D versus 2D environments, rapid imaging-based readout, and the ability to carefully study the impact of individual variables with quantitative rigor will encourage adoption of the RCC-on-a-chip system for testing a wide range of emerging therapies for RCC.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Chris P Miller
- Translational Science and Therapeutics Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States.
| | - Megan Fung
- Translational Science and Therapeutics Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Carla A Jaeger-Ruckstuhl
- Translational Science and Therapeutics Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Yuexin Xu
- Translational Science and Therapeutics Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Edus H Warren
- Translational Science and Therapeutics Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Shreeram Akilesh
- Department of Laboratory Medicine and Pathology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Kidney Research Institute, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States
| | - Scott S Tykodi
- Department of Medicine, Division of Hematology and Oncology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, United States; Clinical Research Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Center, Seattle, WA, United States
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Moya L, Walpole C, Rae F, Srinivasan S, Seim I, Lai J, Nicol D, Williams ED, Clements JA, Batra J. Characterisation of cell lines derived from prostate cancer patients with localised disease. Prostate Cancer Prostatic Dis 2023; 26:614-624. [PMID: 37264224 PMCID: PMC10449630 DOI: 10.1038/s41391-023-00679-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2021] [Revised: 04/17/2023] [Accepted: 05/12/2023] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prostate cancer is a broad-spectrum disease, spanning from indolent to a highly aggressive lethal malignancy. Prostate cancer cell lines are essential tools to understanding the basic features of this malignancy, as well as in identifying novel therapeutic strategies. However, most cell lines routinely used in prostate cancer research are derived from metastatic disease and may not fully elucidate the molecular events underlying the early stages of cancer development and progression. Thus, there is a need for new cell lines derived from localised disease to better span the disease spectrum. METHODS Prostatic tissue from the primary site, and adjacent non-cancerous tissue was obtained from four patients with localised disease undergoing radical prostatectomy. Epithelial cell outgrowths were immortalised with human papillomavirus type 16 (HPV16) E6 and E7 to establish monoclonal cell lines. Chromosomal ploidy was imaged and STR profiles were determined. Cell morphology, colony formation and cell proliferation characteristics were assessed. Androgen receptor (AR) expression and AR-responsiveness to androgen treatment were analysed by immunofluorescence and RT-qPCR, respectively. RNA-seq analysis was performed to identify prostate lineage markers and expression of prostate cancer tumorigenesis-related genes. RESULTS Two benign cell lines derived from non-cancer cells (AQ0420 and AQ0396) and two tumour tissue derived cancer cell lines (AQ0411 and AQ0415) were immortalised from four patients with localised prostatic adenocarcinoma. The cell lines presented an epithelial morphology and a slow to moderate proliferative rate. None of the cell lines formed anchorage independent colonies or displayed AR-responsiveness. Comparative RNA-seq expression analysis confirmed the prostatic lineage of the four cell lines, with a distinct gene expression profile from that of the metastatic prostate cancer cell lines, PC-3 and LNCaP. CONCLUSIONS Comprehensive characterization of these cell lines may provide new in vitro tools that could bridge the current knowledge gap between benign, early-stage and metastatic disease.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Leire Moya
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Carina Walpole
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Cancer Immunotherapies Group, Mater Research, Translational Research Institute, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Fiona Rae
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Srilakshmi Srinivasan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Inge Seim
- Integrative Biology Laboratory, College of Life Sciences, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
- School of Biology and Environmental Science, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - John Lai
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Australian Genome Research Facility Ltd, Gehrmann Laboratories, the University of Queensland, Brisbane, Australia
| | - David Nicol
- Urology Department, Princess Alexandra Hospital, Brisbane, Australia
- Urology Unit, The Royal Marsden, London, UK
| | - Elizabeth D Williams
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Department of Surgery, St Vincent's Hospital, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Judith A Clements
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia
| | - Jyotsna Batra
- School of Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
- Translational Research Institute, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
- Center for genomics and Personalised Health, Queensland University of Technology, Brisbane, Australia.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Kutle I, Polten R, Hachenberg J, Klapdor R, Morgan M, Schambach A. Tumor Organoid and Spheroid Models for Cervical Cancer. Cancers (Basel) 2023; 15:cancers15092518. [PMID: 37173984 PMCID: PMC10177622 DOI: 10.3390/cancers15092518] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2023] [Revised: 04/25/2023] [Accepted: 04/26/2023] [Indexed: 05/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Cervical cancer is one of the most common malignant diseases in women worldwide. Despite the global introduction of a preventive vaccine against the leading cause of cervical cancer, human papillomavirus (HPV) infection, the incidence of this malignant disease is still very high, especially in economically challenged areas. New advances in cancer therapy, especially the rapid development and application of different immunotherapy strategies, have shown promising pre-clinical and clinical results. However, mortality from advanced stages of cervical cancer remains a significant concern. Precise and thorough evaluation of potential novel anti-cancer therapies in pre-clinical phases is indispensable for efficient development of new, more successful treatment options for cancer patients. Recently, 3D tumor models have become the gold standard in pre-clinical cancer research due to their capacity to better mimic the architecture and microenvironment of tumor tissue as compared to standard two-dimensional (2D) cell cultures. This review will focus on the application of spheroids and patient-derived organoids (PDOs) as tumor models to develop novel therapies against cervical cancer, with an emphasis on the immunotherapies that specifically target cancer cells and modulate the tumor microenvironment (TME).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Ivana Kutle
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Robert Polten
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Jens Hachenberg
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Klapdor
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Michael Morgan
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
| | - Axel Schambach
- Institute of Experimental Hematology, Hannover Medical School, 30625 Hannover, Germany
- Division of Hematology/Oncology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Cortesi M, Giordano E. Non-destructive monitoring of 3D cell cultures: new technologies and applications. PeerJ 2022; 10:e13338. [PMID: 35582620 PMCID: PMC9107788 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.13338] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/05/2022] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
3D cell cultures are becoming the new standard for cell-based in vitro research, due to their higher transferrability toward in vivo biology. The lack of established techniques for the non-destructive quantification of relevant variables, however, constitutes a major barrier to the adoption of these technologies, as it increases the resources needed for the experimentation and reduces its accuracy. In this review, we aim at addressing this limitation by providing an overview of different non-destructive approaches for the evaluation of biological features commonly quantified in a number of studies and applications. In this regard, we will cover cell viability, gene expression, population distribution, cell morphology and interactions between the cells and the environment. This analysis is expected to promote the use of the showcased technologies, together with the further development of these and other monitoring methods for 3D cell cultures. Overall, an extensive technology shift is required, in order for monolayer cultures to be superseded, but the potential benefit derived from an increased accuracy of in vitro studies, justifies the effort and the investment.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Marilisa Cortesi
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering ”G.Marconi”, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- School of Clinical Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health, University of New South Wales, Kensington, Australia
| | - Emanuele Giordano
- Department of Electrical, Electronic and Information Engineering ”G.Marconi”, University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
- BioEngLab, Health Science and Technology, Interdepartmental Center for Industrial Research (HST-CIRI), University of Bologna, Ozzano Emilia, Italy
- Advanced Research Center on Electronic Systems (ARCES), University of Bologna, Bologna, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Transcriptomic Analysis of LNCaP Tumor Xenograft to Elucidate the Components and Mechanisms Contributed by Tumor Environment as Targets for Dietary Prostate Cancer Prevention Studies. Nutrients 2021; 13:nu13031000. [PMID: 33808801 PMCID: PMC8003580 DOI: 10.3390/nu13031000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2020] [Revised: 03/09/2021] [Accepted: 03/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
LNCaP athymic xenograft model has been widely used to allow researchers to examine the effects and mechanisms of experimental treatments such as diet and diet-derived cancer preventive and therapeutic compounds on prostate cancer. However, the biological characteristics of human LNCaP cells before/after implanting in athymic mouse and its relevance to clinical human prostate outcomes remain unclear and may dictate interpretation of biological efficacies/mechanisms of diet/diet-derived experimental treatments. In this study, transcriptome profiles and pathways of human prostate LNCaP cells before (in vitro) and after (in vivo) implanting into xenograft mouse were compared using RNA-sequencing technology (RNA-seq) followed by bioinformatic analysis. A shift from androgen-responsive to androgen nonresponsive status was observed when comparing LNCaP xenograft tumor to culture cells. Androgen receptor and aryl-hydrocarbon pathway were found to be inhibited and interleukin-1 (IL-1) mediated pathways contributed to these changes. Coupled with in vitro experiments modeling for androgen exposure, cell-matrix interaction, inflammation, and hypoxia, we identified specific mechanisms that may contribute to the observed changes in genes and pathways. Our results provide critical baseline transcriptomic information for a tumor xenograft model and the tumor environments that might be associated with regulating the progression of the xenograft tumor, which may influence interpretation of diet/diet-derived experimental treatments.
Collapse
|
8
|
Validation of a multicellular tumor microenvironment system for modeling patient tumor biology and drug response. Sci Rep 2021; 11:5535. [PMID: 33692370 PMCID: PMC7946945 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-84612-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2020] [Accepted: 02/09/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Lung cancer rates are rising globally and non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) has a five year survival rate of only 24%. Unfortunately, the development of drugs to treat cancer is severely hampered by the inefficiency of translating pre-clinical studies into clinical benefit. Thus, we sought to apply a tumor microenvironment system (TMES) to NSCLC. Using microvascular endothelial cells, lung cancer derived fibroblasts, and NSCLC tumor cells in the presence of in vivo tumor-derived hemodynamic flow and transport, we demonstrate that the TMES generates an in-vivo like biological state and predicts drug response to EGFR inhibitors. Transcriptomic and proteomic profiling indicate that the TMES recapitulates the in vivo and patient molecular biological state providing a mechanistic rationale for the predictive nature of the TMES. This work further validates the TMES for modeling patient tumor biology and drug response indicating utility of the TMES as a predictive tool for drug discovery and development and potential for use as a system for patient avatars.
Collapse
|