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Insights into the Orchestration of Gene Transcription Regulators in Helicobacter pylori. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232213688. [PMID: 36430169 PMCID: PMC9696931 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232213688] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2022] [Revised: 10/31/2022] [Accepted: 11/04/2022] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Bacterial pathogens employ a general strategy to overcome host defenses by coordinating the virulence gene expression using dedicated regulatory systems that could raise intricate networks. During the last twenty years, many studies of Helicobacter pylori, a human pathogen responsible for various stomach diseases, have mainly focused on elucidating the mechanisms and functions of virulence factors. In parallel, numerous studies have focused on the molecular mechanisms that regulate gene transcription to attempt to understand the physiological changes of the bacterium during infection and adaptation to the environmental conditions it encounters. The number of regulatory proteins deduced from the genome sequence analyses responsible for the correct orchestration of gene transcription appears limited to 14 regulators and three sigma factors. Furthermore, evidence is accumulating for new and complex circuits regulating gene transcription and H. pylori virulence. Here, we focus on the molecular mechanisms used by H. pylori to control gene transcription as a function of the principal environmental changes.
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De la Cruz MA, Ares MA, von Bargen K, Panunzi LG, Martínez-Cruz J, Valdez-Salazar HA, Jiménez-Galicia C, Torres J. Gene Expression Profiling of Transcription Factors of Helicobacter pylori under Different Environmental Conditions. Front Microbiol 2017; 8:615. [PMID: 28443084 PMCID: PMC5385360 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2017.00615] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2016] [Accepted: 03/27/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Helicobacter pylori is a Gram-negative bacterium that colonizes the human gastric mucosa and causes peptic ulcers and gastric carcinoma. H. pylori strain 26695 has a small genome (1.67 Mb), which codes for few known transcriptional regulators that control bacterial metabolism and virulence. We analyzed by qRT-PCR the expression of 16 transcriptional regulators in H. pylori 26695, including the three sigma factors under different environmental conditions. When bacteria were exposed to acidic pH, urea, nickel, or iron, the sigma factors were differentially expressed with a particularly strong induction of fliA. The regulatory genes hrcA, hup, and crdR were highly induced in the presence of urea, nickel, and iron. In terms of biofilm formation fliA, flgR, hp1021, fur, nikR, and crdR were induced in sessile bacteria. Transcriptional expression levels of rpoD, flgR, hspR, hp1043, and cheY were increased in contact with AGS epithelial cells. Kanamycin, chloramphenicol, and tetracycline increased or decreased expression of regulatory genes, showing that these antibiotics affect the transcription of H. pylori. Our data indicate that environmental cues which may be present in the human stomach modulate H. pylori transcription.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miguel A De la Cruz
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatria, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
| | - Miguel A Ares
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatria, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Leonardo G Panunzi
- CNRS UMR7280, Inserm, U1104, Centre d'Immunologie de Marseille-Luminy, Aix Marseille Université UM2Marseille, France
| | - Jessica Martínez-Cruz
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatria, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
| | - Hilda A Valdez-Salazar
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatria, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
| | - César Jiménez-Galicia
- Laboratorio Clínico, Unidad Médica de Alta Especialidad, Hospital de Pediatría, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
| | - Javier Torres
- Unidad de Investigación Médica en Enfermedades Infecciosas y Parasitarias, Hospital de Pediatria, Centro Médico Nacional Siglo XXI, Instituto Mexicano del Seguro SocialMexico City, Mexico
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Lee KY, Lee BJ. Solution NMR studies on Helicobacter pylori proteins for antibiotic target discovery. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2016; 11:681-93. [PMID: 27216839 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2016.1189411] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori) is a well-known widespread pathogenic bacterium that survives in the extremely acidic conditions of the human gastric mucosa. The global prevalence of H. pylori-resistant antibiotics has become an emerging issue in the 21st century and has necessitated the development of novel antibiotic drugs. Many efforts have aimed to discover antibiotic target proteins of H. pylori based on its genome of more than 1600 genes. AREAS COVERED This article highlights NMR spectroscopy as a valuable tool for determining the structure and dynamics of potential antibiotic-targeted proteins of H. pylori and evaluating their modes of interaction with native or synthetic binding partners. The residue-specific information on binding in solution provides a structural basis to identify and optimize lead compounds. EXPERT OPINION NMR spectroscopy is a powerful method for obtaining details of biomolecular interactions with a broad range of binding affinities. This strength facilitates the identification of the binding interface of the encounter complex that plays an integral role in a variety of biological functions. This low-affinity complex is difficult to crystallize, which impedes structure determination using X-ray crystallography. Additionally, the relative binding affinities can be predicted from the type of spectral change upon binding. High-resolution NMR spectroscopy in combination with advanced computer simulation would provide more confidence in complex structures. The application of NMR to studies of the H. pylori protein could contribute to the development of these targeted novel antibiotics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ki-Young Lee
- a Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
| | - Bong-Jin Lee
- a Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University , Seoul , Korea
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Kang SJ, Kim DH, Lee BJ. NMR study on small proteins from Helicobacter pylori for antibiotic target discovery: a review. Molecules 2013; 18:13410-24. [PMID: 24177697 PMCID: PMC6269979 DOI: 10.3390/molecules181113410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2013] [Revised: 10/24/2013] [Accepted: 10/27/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Due to the widespread and increasing appearance of antibiotic resistance, a new strategy is needed for developing novel antibiotics. Especially, there are no specific antibiotics for Helicobacter pylori (H. pylori). H. pylori are bacteria that live in the stomach and are related to many serious gastric problems such as peptic ulcers, chronic gastritis, mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue lymphoma, and gastric cancer. Because of its importance as a human pathogen, it's worth studying the structure and function of the proteins from H. pylori. After the sequencing of the H. pylori strain 26695 in 1997, more than 1,600 genes were identified from H. pylori. Until now, the structures of 334 proteins from H. pylori have been determined. Among them, 309 structures were determined by X-ray crystallography and 25 structures by Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR), respectively. Overall, the structures of large proteins were determined by X-ray crystallography and those of small proteins by NMR. In our lab, we have studied the structural and functional characteristics of small proteins from H. pylori. In this review, 25 NMR structures of H. pylori proteins will be introduced and their structure-function relationships will be discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Su-Jin Kang
- Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul 151-742, Korea.
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Structure and function of AvtR, a novel transcriptional regulator from a hyperthermophilic archaeal lipothrixvirus. J Virol 2012; 87:124-36. [PMID: 23055559 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01306-12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The structural and functional analysis of the protein AvtR encoded by Acidianus filamentous virus 6 (AFV6), which infects the archaeal genus Acidianus, revealed its unusual structure and involvement in transcriptional regulation of several viral genes. The crystal structure of AvtR (100 amino acids) at 2.6-Å resolution shows that it is constituted of a repeated ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) motif, which is found in a large family of bacterial transcriptional regulators. The known RHH proteins form dimers that interact with DNA using their ribbon to create a central β-sheet. The repeated RHH motifs of AvtR superpose well on such dimers, but its central sheet contains an extra strand, suggesting either conformational changes or a different mode of DNA binding. Systematic evolution of ligands by exponential enrichment (SELEX) experiments combined with systematic mutational and computational analysis of the predicted site revealed 8 potential AvtR targets in the AFV6 genome. Two of these targets were studied in detail, and the complex role of AvtR in the transcriptional regulation of viral genes was established. Repressing transcription from its own gene, gp29, AvtR can also act as an activator of another gene, gp30. Its binding sites are distant from both genes' TATA boxes, and the mechanism of AvtR-dependent regulation appears to include protein oligomerization starting from the protein's initial binding sites. Many RHH transcriptional regulators of archaeal viruses could share this regulatory mechanism.
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Pryor EE, Waligora EA, Xu B, Dellos-Nolan S, Wozniak DJ, Hollis T. The transcription factor AmrZ utilizes multiple DNA binding modes to recognize activator and repressor sequences of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence genes. PLoS Pathog 2012; 8:e1002648. [PMID: 22511872 PMCID: PMC3325190 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1002648] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 03/02/2012] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
AmrZ, a member of the Ribbon-Helix-Helix family of DNA binding proteins, functions as both a transcriptional activator and repressor of multiple genes encoding Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence factors. The expression of these virulence factors leads to chronic and sustained infections associated with worsening prognosis. In this study, we present the X-ray crystal structure of AmrZ in complex with DNA containing the repressor site, amrZ1. Binding of AmrZ to this site leads to auto-repression. AmrZ binds this DNA sequence as a dimer-of-dimers, and makes specific base contacts to two half sites, separated by a five base pair linker region. Analysis of the linker region shows a narrowing of the minor groove, causing significant distortions. AmrZ binding assays utilizing sequences containing variations in this linker region reveals that secondary structure of the DNA, conferred by the sequence of this region, is an important determinant in binding affinity. The results from these experiments allow for the creation of a model where both intrinsic structure of the DNA and specific nucleotide recognition are absolutely necessary for binding of the protein. We also examined AmrZ binding to the algD promoter, which results in activation of the alginate exopolysaccharide biosynthetic operon, and found the protein utilizes different interactions with this site. Finally, we tested the in vivo effects of this differential binding by switching the AmrZ binding site at algD, where it acts as an activator, for a repressor binding sequence and show that differences in binding alone do not affect transcriptional regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Edward E. Pryor
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Elizabeth A. Waligora
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
| | - Binjie Xu
- Departments of Microbiology and Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Sheri Dellos-Nolan
- Departments of Microbiology and Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Daniel J. Wozniak
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
- Departments of Microbiology and Microbial Infection and Immunity, Center for Microbial Interface Biology, The Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio, United States of America
| | - Thomas Hollis
- Department of Biochemistry and Center for Structural Biology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston-Salem, North Carolina, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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AmrZ beta-sheet residues are essential for DNA binding and transcriptional control of Pseudomonas aeruginosa virulence genes. J Bacteriol 2010; 192:5390-401. [PMID: 20709902 DOI: 10.1128/jb.00711-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
AmrZ is a putative ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) transcriptional regulator. RHH proteins utilize residues within the β-sheet for DNA binding, while the α-helices promote oligomerization. AmrZ is of interest due to its dual roles as a transcriptional activator and as a repressor, regulating genes encoding virulence factors associated with both chronic and acute Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection. In this study, cross-linking revealed that AmrZ forms oligomers in solution but that the amino terminus, containing an unordered region and a β-sheet, were not required for oligomerization. The first 12 unordered residues (extended amino terminus) contributed minimally to DNA binding. Mutagenesis of the AmrZ β-sheet demonstrated that residues 18, 20, and 22 were essential for DNA binding at both activation and repressor sites, suggesting that AmrZ utilizes a similar mechanism for binding to these sites. Mice infected with amrZ mutants exhibited reduced bacterial burden, morbidity, and mortality. Direct in vivo competition assays showed a 5-fold competitive advantage for the wild type over an isogenic amrZ mutant. Finally, the reduced infection phenotype of the amrZ-null strain was similar to that of a strain expressing a DNA-binding-deficient AmrZ variant, indicating that DNA binding and transcriptional regulation by AmrZ is responsible for the in vivo virulence defect. These recent infection data, along with previously identified AmrZ-regulated virulence factors, suggest the necessity of AmrZ transcriptional regulation for optimal virulence during acute infection.
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Guillière F, Peixeiro N, Kessler A, Raynal B, Desnoues N, Keller J, Delepierre M, Prangishvili D, Sezonov G, Guijarro JI. Structure, function, and targets of the transcriptional regulator SvtR from the hyperthermophilic archaeal virus SIRV1. J Biol Chem 2009; 284:22222-22237. [PMID: 19535331 PMCID: PMC2755947 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.029850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2009] [Revised: 06/04/2009] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
We have characterized the structure and the function of the 6.6-kDa protein SvtR (formerly called gp08) from the rod-shaped virus SIRV1, which infects the hyperthermophilic archaeon Sulfolobus islandicus that thrives at 85 degrees C in hot acidic springs. The protein forms a dimer in solution. The NMR solution structure of the protein consists of a ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) fold between residues 13 and 56 and a disordered N-terminal region (residues 1-12). The structure is very similar to that of bacterial RHH proteins despite the low sequence similarity. We demonstrated that the protein binds DNA and uses its beta-sheet face for the interaction like bacterial RHH proteins. To detect all the binding sites on the 32.3-kb SIRV1 linear genome, we designed and performed a global genome-wide search of targets based on a simplified electrophoretic mobility shift assay. Four targets were recognized by the protein. The strongest binding was observed with the promoter of the gene coding for a virion structural protein. When assayed in a host reconstituted in vitro transcription system, the protein SvtR (Sulfolobus virus transcription regulator) repressed transcription from the latter promoter, as well as from the promoter of its own gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- Florence Guillière
- From the Institut Pasteur, Unité de RMN des Biomolécules, CNRS URA 2185, 75015 Paris
| | - Nuno Peixeiro
- the Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, 75015 Paris
| | - Alexandra Kessler
- the Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, 75015 Paris
| | - Bertrand Raynal
- the Institut Pasteur, Plate-forme de Biophysique des Macromolécules et de leurs Interactions, 75015 Paris
| | - Nicole Desnoues
- the Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, 75015 Paris
| | - Jenny Keller
- the Institut de Biochimie et de Biophysique Moléculaire et Cellulaire, CNRS-UMR 8619, Université Paris 11, IFR115, Bâtiment 430, 91405 Orsay, and
| | - Muriel Delepierre
- From the Institut Pasteur, Unité de RMN des Biomolécules, CNRS URA 2185, 75015 Paris
| | - David Prangishvili
- the Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, 75015 Paris
| | - Guennadi Sezonov
- the Institut Pasteur, Unité de Biologie Moléculaire du Gène chez les Extrêmophiles, 75015 Paris
- the Université Pierre et Marie Curie, 4 place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France
| | - J. Iñaki Guijarro
- From the Institut Pasteur, Unité de RMN des Biomolécules, CNRS URA 2185, 75015 Paris
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Borin BN, Krezel AM. Structure of HP0564 from Helicobacter pylori identifies it as a new transcriptional regulator. Proteins 2009; 73:265-8. [PMID: 18623065 DOI: 10.1002/prot.22159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Brendan N Borin
- Department of Biological Sciences, Center for Structural Biology, Vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tennessee 37235, USA
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10
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Oberer M, Zangger K, Gruber K, Keller W. The solution structure of ParD, the antidote of the ParDE toxin antitoxin module, provides the structural basis for DNA and toxin binding. Protein Sci 2007; 16:1676-88. [PMID: 17656583 PMCID: PMC2203376 DOI: 10.1110/ps.062680707] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
ParD is the antidote of the plasmid-encoded toxin-antitoxin (TA) system ParD-ParE. These modules rely on differential stabilities of a highly expressed but labile antidote and a stable toxin expressed from one operon. Consequently, loss of the coding plasmid results in loss of the protective antidote and poisoning of the cell. The antidote protein usually also exhibits an autoregulatory function of the operon. In this paper, we present the solution structure of ParD. The repressor activity of ParD is mediated by the N-terminal half of the protein, which adopts a ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) fold. The C-terminal half of the protein is unstructured in the absence of its cognate binding partner ParE. Based on homology with other RHH proteins, we present a model of the ParD-DNA interaction, with the antiparallel beta-strand being inserted into the major groove of DNA. The fusion of the N-terminal DNA-binding RHH motif to the toxin-binding unstructured C-terminal domain is discussed in its evolutionary context.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monika Oberer
- Institut für Chemie, Arbeitsgruppe Strukturbiologie, Karl-Franzens-Universität Graz, A-8010 Graz, Austria
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Abstract
The ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) superfamily of transcription factors uses a conserved three-dimensional structural motif to bind to DNA in a sequence-specific manner. This functionally diverse protein superfamily regulates the transcription of genes that are involved in the uptake of metals, amino-acid biosynthesis, cell division, the control of plasmid copy number, the lytic cycle of bacteriophages and, perhaps, many other cellular processes. In this Analysis, the structures of different RHH transcription factors are compared in order to evaluate the sequence motifs that are required for RHH-domain folding and DNA binding, as well as to identify conserved protein-DNA interactions in this superfamily.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric R Schreiter
- Department of Chemistry and Protein Research Center, University of Puerto Rico at Rio Piedras, San Juan, Puerto Rico 00931, Puerto Rico.
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Larson JD, Jenkins JL, Schuermann JP, Zhou Y, Becker DF, Tanner JJ. Crystal structures of the DNA-binding domain of Escherichia coli proline utilization A flavoprotein and analysis of the role of Lys9 in DNA recognition. Protein Sci 2006; 15:2630-41. [PMID: 17001030 PMCID: PMC2242416 DOI: 10.1110/ps.062425706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
PutA (proline utilization A) from Escherichia coli is a 1320-amino-acid residue protein that is both a bifunctional proline catabolic enzyme and an autogenous transcriptional repressor. Here, we report the first crystal structure of a PutA DNA-binding domain along with functional analysis of a mutant PutA defective in DNA binding. Crystals were grown using a polypeptide corresponding to residues 1-52 of E. coli PutA (PutA52). The 2.1 Angstrom resolution structure of PutA52 mutant Lys9Met was determined using Se-Met MAD phasing, and the structure of native PutA52 was solved at 1.9 Angstrom resolution using molecular replacement. Residues 3-46 form a ribbon-helix-helix (RHH) substructure, thus establishing PutA as the largest protein to contain an RHH domain. The PutA RHH domain forms the intertwined dimer with tightly packed hydrophobic core that is characteristic of the RHH family. The structures were used to examine the three-dimensional context of residues conserved in PutA RHH domains. Homology modeling suggests that Lys9 and Thr5 contact DNA bases through the major groove, while Arg15, Thr28, and His30 may interact with the phosphate backbone. Lys9 is shown to be essential for specific recognition of put control DNA using gel shift analysis of the Lys9Met mutant of full-length PutA. Lys9 is disordered in the PutA52 structure, which implies an induced-fit binding mechanism in which the side chain of Lys9 becomes ordered through interaction with DNA. These results provide new insights into the structural basis of DNA recognition by PutA and reveal three-dimensional structural details of the PutA dimer interface.
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Affiliation(s)
- John D Larson
- Department of Chemistry, University of Missouri--Columbia, Columbia, Missouri 65211, USA
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Han KD, Park SJ, Jang SB, Son WS, Lee BJ. Solution structure of conserved hypothetical protein HP0894 from Helicobacter pylori. Proteins 2006; 61:1114-6. [PMID: 16231332 DOI: 10.1002/prot.20691] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Kyung-Doo Han
- National Laboratory of Membrane Protein Structure, Research Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, College of Pharmacy, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea
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