Folding correction of ABC-transporter ABCB1 by pharmacological chaperones: a mechanistic concept

The noncanonical nucleotide binding site 1 of the bile salt export pump is optimized for proper function of the transporter

The bile salt export pump (ABCB11/BSEP) is a hepatocyte plasma membrane-resident protein translocating bile salts into bile canaliculi. The sequence alignment of the four full-length transporters of the ABCB subfamily (ABCB1, ABCB4, ABCB5 and ABCB11) indicates that the NBD-NBD contact interface of ABCB11 differs from that of other members in only four residues. Notably, these are all located in the noncanonical nucleotide binding site 1 (NBS1). Substitution of all four deviant residues with canonical ones (quadruple mutant) significantly decreased the transport activity of the protein. In this study, we mutated two deviant residues in the signature sequence to generate a double mutant (R1221G/E1223Q). Furthermore, a triple mutant (E502S/R1221G/E1223Q) was generated, in which the deviant residues of the signature sequence and Q-loop were mutated concurrently to canonical residues. The double and triple mutants showed 80% and 60%, respectively, of the activity of wild-type BSEP. As expected, an increasing number of mutations gradually impair transport as an intricate network of interactions within the ABC proteins ensures proper functioning.

Folding and Misfolding of Human Membrane Proteins in Health and Disease: From Single Molecules to Cellular Proteostasis

Advances over the past 25 years have revealed much about how the structural properties of membranes and associated proteins are linked to the thermodynamics and kinetics of membrane protein (MP) folding. At the same time biochemical progress has outlined how cellular proteostasis networks mediate MP folding and manage misfolding in the cell. When combined with results from genomic sequencing, these studies have established paradigms for how MP folding and misfolding are linked to the molecular etiologies of a variety of diseases. This emerging framework has paved the way for the development of a new class of small molecule "pharmacological chaperones" that bind to and stabilize misfolded MP variants, some of which are now in clinical use. In this review, we comprehensively outline current perspectives on the folding and misfolding of integral MPs as well as the mechanisms of cellular MP quality control. Based on these perspectives, we highlight new opportunities for innovations that bridge our molecular understanding of the energetics of MP folding with the nuanced complexity of biological systems. Given the many linkages between MP misfolding and human disease, we also examine some of the exciting opportunities to leverage these advances to address emerging challenges in the development of therapeutics and precision medicine.

Allosteric Regulation of the Follicle-Stimulating Hormone Receptor

Follicle-stimulating hormone receptor (FSHR) belongs to the leucine-rich repeat family of the G protein-coupled receptor (LGR), which includes the glycoprotein hormone receptors luteinizing hormone receptor, thyrotropin receptor, and other LGRs 4, 5, 6, and 7. FSH is the key regulator of folliculogenesis in females and spermatogenesis in males. FSH elicits its physiological response through its cognate receptor on the cell surface. Binding of the hormone FSH to its receptor FSHR brings about conformational changes in the receptor that are transduced through the transmembrane domain to the intracellular region, where the downstream effector interaction takes place, leading to activation of the downstream signaling cascade. Identification of small molecules that could activate or antagonize FSHR provided interesting tools to study the signal transduction mechanism of the receptor. However, because of the nature of the ligand-receptor interaction of FSH-FSHR, which contains multiple sites in the extracellular binding domain, most of the small-molecule modulators of FSHR are unable to bind to the orthosteric site of the receptors. Rather they modulate receptor activation through allosteric sites in the transmembrane region. This review will discuss allosteric modulation of FSHR primarily through the discovery of small-molecule modulators, focusing on current data on the status of development and the utility of these as tools to better understand signaling mechanisms.

Molecular Mechanism of Taurocholate Transport by the Bile Salt Export Pump, an ABC Transporter Associated with Intrahepatic Cholestasis

The bile salt export pump (BSEP/ABCB11) transports bile salts from hepatocytes into bile canaliculi. Its malfunction is associated with severe liver disease. One reason for functional impairment of BSEP is systemic administration of drugs, which as a side effect inhibit the transporter. Therefore, drug candidates are routinely screened for potential interaction with this transporter. Hence, understanding the functional biology of BSEP is of key importance. In this study, we engineered the transporter to dissect interdomain communication paths. We introduced mutations in noncanonical and in conserved residues of either of the two nucleotide binding domains and determined the effect on BSEP basal and substrate-stimulated ATPase activity as well as on taurocholate transport. Replacement of the noncanonical methionine residue M584 (Walker B sequence of nucleotide binding site 1) by glutamate imparted hydrolysis competency to this site. Importantly, this mutation was able to sustain 15% of wild-type transport activity, when the catalytic glutamate of the canonical nucleotide binding site 2 was mutated to glutamine. Kinetic modeling of experimental results for the ensuing M584E/E1244Q mutant suggests that a transfer of hydrolytic capacity from the canonical to the noncanonical nucleotide binding site results in loss of active and adoption of facilitative characteristics. This facilitative transport is ATP-gated. To the best of our knowledge, this result is unprecedented in ATP-binding cassette proteins with one noncanonical nucleotide binding site. Our study promotes an understanding of the domain interplay in BSEP as a basis for exploration of drug interactions with this transporter.

Folding correction of ABC-transporter ABCB1 by pharmacological chaperones: a mechanistic concept

Point mutations of ATP‐binding cassette (ABC) proteins are a common cause of human diseases. Available crystal structures indicate a similarity in the architecture of several members of this protein family. Their molecular architecture makes these proteins vulnerable to mutation, when critical structural elements are affected. The latter preferentially involve the two transmembrane domain (TMD)/nucleotide‐binding domain (NBD) interfaces (transmission interfaces), formation of which requires engagement of coupling helices of intracellular loops with NBDs. Both, formation of the active sites and engagement of the coupling helices, are contingent on correct positioning of ICLs 2 and 4 and thus an important prerequisite for proper folding. Here, we show that active site compounds are capable of rescuing P‐glycoprotein (P‐gp) mutants ∆Y490 and ∆Y1133 in a concentration‐dependent manner. These trafficking deficient mutations are located at the transmission interface in pseudosymmetric position to each other. In addition, the ability of propafenone analogs to correct folding correlates with their ability to inhibit transport of model substrates. This finding indicates that folding correction and transport inhibition by propafenone analogs are brought about by binding to the active sites. Furthermore, this study demonstrates an asymmetry in folding correction with cis‐flupentixol, which reflects the asymmetric binding properties of this modulator to P‐gp. Our results suggest a mechanistic model for corrector action in a model ABC transporter based on insights into the molecular architecture of these transporters.