Antifungal Activity of Ellagic Acid In Vitro and In Vivo

Integrating single-cell and multi-omic approaches reveals Euphorbiae Humifusae Herba-dependent mitochondrial dysfunction in non-small-cell lung cancer

Euphorbiae Humifusae Herba (EHH) is a pivotal therapeutic agent with diverse pharmacological effects. However, a substantial gap exists in understanding its pharmacological properties and anti-tumour mechanisms. This study aimed to address this gap by exploring EHH's pharmacological properties, identifying NSCLC therapy-associated protein targets, and elucidating how EHH induces mitochondrial disruption in NSCLC cells, offering insights into novel NSCLC treatment strategies. String database was utilized to explore protein-protein interactions. Subsequently, single-cell analysis and multi-omics further unveiled the impact of EHH-targeted genes on the immune microenvironment of NSCLC, as well as their influence on immunotherapeutic responses. Finally, both in vivo and in vitro experiments elucidated the anti-tumour mechanisms of EHH, specifically through the assessment of mitochondrial ROS levels and alterations in mitochondrial membrane potential. EHH exerts its influence through engagement with a cluster of 10 genes, including the apoptotic gene CASP3. This regulatory impact on the immune milieu within NSCLC holds promise as an indicator for predicting responses to immunotherapy. Besides, EHH demonstrated the capability to induce mitochondrial ROS generation and perturbations in mitochondrial membrane potential in NSCLC cells, ultimately leading to mitochondrial dysfunction and consequent apoptosis of tumour cells. EHH induces mitochondrial disruption in NSCLC cells, leading to cell apoptosis to inhibit the progress of NSCLC.

Antimicrobial Properties Related to Anti-Acne and Deodorant Efficacy of Hedychium coronarium J. Koenig Extracts from Pulsed Electric Field Extraction

This study investigated the potential of pulsed electric field (PEF) extraction in enhancing the antimicrobial properties related to anti-acne and deodorant properties of Hedychium coronarium extract. The dried leaf and rhizome of H. coronarium were extracted using 95% v/v ethanol through both conventional solvent extraction and PEF extraction techniques (10, 14, and 20 kV/cm). The chemical composition of the extracts was analyzed. The antimicrobial activities, specifically in relation to acne treatment against Cutibacterium acnes and deodorant properties against Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis, Micrococcus luteus, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, and Escherichia coli, were determined. The irritation profile of was evaluated using the hen's egg chorioallantoic membrane test. The results showed that PEF extraction increased the extract yield, particularly at an electric field strength of 20 kV/cm. Furthermore, PEF extraction significantly enhanced the ellagic acid content, particularly in the leaf extract. Furthermore, the leaf extract demonstrated stronger inhibitory effects against microorganisms associated with body odor and acne compared to the rhizome extract. Notably, all extracts exhibited no signs of irritation, indicating their safety. Overall, the findings suggest that PEF extraction from H. coronarium enhances yield, bioactive compound content, and antimicrobial effects. This indicates the potential of the extract for acne treatment and deodorant use.

Artemisia argyi extract subfraction exerts an antifungal effect against dermatophytes by disrupting mitochondrial morphology and function

Artemisia argyi (A. argyi), a plant with a longstanding history as a raw material for traditional medicine and functional diets in Asia, has been used traditionally to bathe and soak feet for its disinfectant and itch-relieving properties. Despite its widespread use, scientific evidence validating the antifungal efficacy of A. argyi water extract (AAWE) against dermatophytes, particularly Trichophyton rubrum, Trichophyton mentagrophytes, and Microsporum gypseum, remains limited. This study aimed to substantiate the scientific basis of the folkloric use of A. argyi by evaluating the antifungal effects and the underlying molecular mechanisms of its active subfraction against dermatophytes. The results indicated that AAWE exhibited excellent antifungal effects against the three aforementioned dermatophyte species. The subfraction AAWE6, isolated using D101 macroporous resin, emerged as the most potent subfraction. The minimum inhibitory concentrations (MICs) of AAWE6 against T. rubrum, M. gypseum, and T. mentagrophytes were 312.5, 312.5, and 625 μg·mL-1, respectively. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) results and assays of enzymes linked to cell wall integrity and cell membrane function indicated that AAWE6 could penetrate the external protective barrier of T. rubrum, creating breaches ("small holes"), and disrupt the internal mitochondrial structure ("granary"). Furthermore, transcriptome data, quantitative real-time PCR (RT-qPCR), and biochemical assays corroborated the severe disruption of mitochondrial function, evidenced by inhibited tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle and energy metabolism. Additionally, chemical characterization and molecular docking analyses identified flavonoids, primarily eupatilin (131.16 ± 4.52 mg·g-1) and jaceosidin (4.17 ± 0.18 mg·g-1), as the active components of AAWE6. In conclusion, the subfraction AAWE6 from A. argyi exerts antifungal effects against dermatophytes by disrupting mitochondrial morphology and function. This research validates the traditional use of A. argyi and provides scientific support for its anti-dermatophytic applications, as recognized in the Chinese patent (No. ZL202111161301.9).

The effect of ellagic acid on the metabolic syndrome: A review article

Objective

(s): Metabolic syndrome is a collection of metabolic abnormalities that includes hyperglycemia, dyslipidemia, hypertension, and obesity. Ellagic acid is found in various fruits and vegetables. It has been reported to have several pharmacological properties, such as antibacterial, antifungal, antiviral, anti-inflammatory, hepatoprotective, cardioprotective, chemopreventive, neuroprotective, gastroprotective, and antidiabetic. Our current study aims to shed light on the probable efficiency of ellagic acid in managing metabolic syndrome and its complications.

Materials and methods

To prepare the present review, the databases or search engines utilized included Scopus, PubMed, Science Direct, and Google Scholar, and relevant articles have been gathered with no time limit until March 2023.

Results

Several investigations indicated that ellagic acid could be a potent compound for the treatment of many disorders such as diabetes, hypertension, and hyperlipidemia by various mechanisms, including increasing insulin secretion, insulin receptor substrate protein 1 expression, regulating glucose transporter 4, triglyceride, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein (LDL), high-density lipoprotein (HDL), attenuating tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-α), interleukin-6 (IL-6), reactive oxygen species (ROS), malondialdehyde (MDA), and oxidative stress in related tissues. Furthermore, ellagic acid ameliorates mitochondrial function, upregulates uncoupling protein 1 (found in brown and white adipose tissues), and regulates blood levels of nitrate/nitrite and vascular relaxations in response to acetylcholine and sodium nitroprusside.

Conclusion

Ellagic acid can treat or manage metabolic syndrome and associated complications, according to earlier studies. To validate the beneficial effects of ellagic acid on metabolic syndrome, additional preclinical and clinical research is necessary.

Antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy of the preferred fractions and compounds from Euphorbia humifusa (herba euphorbiae humifusae) against Staphylococcus aureus

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Euphorbia humifusa Willd., known as Di-Jin-Cao in Chinese, has long been utilized as a traditional herb for the treatment of furuncles and carbuncles mainly caused by Staphylococcus aureus infection. Despite extensive chemical and pharmacological studies reported previously for E. humifusa, the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities against S. aureus as well as the related mechanism of action (MoA) remain largely obscure.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To investigate the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities of the preferred fractions and compounds from E. humifusa against S. aureus and assess the associated MoA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The bioactive fractions and compounds were obtained from the 75% ethanol extract of E. humifusa (75%-EEEH) with the assistance of the related antibacterial and antibiofilm screening. Their antibacterial activities were determined using the broth microdilution method, whilst the inhibition of biofilm formation and the disruption of preformed biofilm were assessed by crystal violet staining and confocal laser scanning microscopy (CLSM). To achieve more effective therapies, the combinatory effects of different components were also studied. The biofilm metabolic activities of isolated compounds were evaluated by 2,3-bis-(2-methoxy-4-nitro-5-sulfophenyl)-2H-tetrazolium-5-carboxanilide (XTT) reduction assay. The scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) were employed to explore the antibiofilm mechanism.

RESULTS

Fractions DJC06 and DJC07 collected from the ethyl acetate extract of the 75%-EEEH exhibited antibacterial activity (MIC = 256 μg/mL) against S. aureus and further separation of these two fractions led to the isolation and characterization of 22 compounds. Among the isolates, luteolin (LU), quercetin (QU), and kaempferol (KA) are the verified components associated with the antibacterial and antibiofilm activities by displaying individual or combinational MIC values of 8-128 μg/mL and 70.9-99.7% inhibition for biofilm formation. Importantly, QU and KA can work in synergy with LU to significantly enhance the efficacy via destroying cell integrity, increasing membrane permeability, and down-regulating the biofilm-related gene expression.

CONCLUSIONS

The preferred fractions and compounds from E. humifusa exerted desired antibacterial and antibiofilm efficacy against S. aureus via a MoA involving cell morphology disruption and altered genes expression. The findings herein not only support its traditional use in the treatment of furuncles and carbuncles, but reveal E. humifusa is a potential source for producing promising antibiofilm alternatives against S. aureus and highlight the isolated components (LU, QU, KA) that can potentiate the efficacy when used in synergy.

Antibacterial and hemostatic polyvinyl alcohol/microcrystalline cellulose reinforced sodium alginate breathable dressing containing Euphorbia humifusa extract based on microfluidic spinning technology

Antibacterial hemostatic medical dressings have become feasible solutions in response to the challenging wound-healing process. In this study, a novel fiber-type medical dressing with excellent breathable, antibacterial, and hemostatic qualities was created using sodium alginate (SA), microcrystalline cellulose (MCC), polyvinyl alcohol (PVA), and Euphorbia humifusa Willd (EHW) based on microfluidic spinning technology, and the properties of the dressing were characterized. The orthogonal test demonstrates that PVA and MCC can enhance the mechanical properties of the fiber, which is a crucial requirement for fiber assembly to form the dressing. Moreover, the presence of EHW enhances the dressing's antibacterial and hemostatic qualities. The dressings have been proven to have potent antibacterial and hemostatic properties as well as the ability to considerably speed up wound healing and skin tissue regeneration in the in-vitro and in-vivo tests. In conclusion, this innovative fiber-type medical dressing containing SA, MCC, PVA, and EHW has enormous potential for managing wounds caused by bacteria.

Ellagic Acid-Cyclodextrin Inclusion Complex-Loaded Thiol-Ene Hydrogel with Antioxidant, Antibacterial, and Anti-inflammatory Properties for Wound Healing

Hydrogel dressings not only have basic functions such as swelling, water retention, gas permeability, and good biocompatibility but also can be endowed with advanced functions such as antibacterial, antioxidant, adhesion, hemostasis, and anti-inflammation, which make hydrogels have great application potential in clinical trauma. However, the complexity of the wound healing process makes the development of multifunctional wound dressings a great challenge. In this work, based on the thiol-ene photoclickable PEG hydrogel, the inclusion complex of the hydrophobic drug ellagic acid (EA) with mono-(6-mercapto-6-deoxy)-β-cyclodextrin (SH-β-CD) participated in the formation of a hydrogel as a crosslinker. The drug EA with antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities was introduced into the hydrogel. This strategy increases the loading capacity of the hydrogel for EA and endows the hydrogel with multifunctional properties. Then, dithiothreitol was added to adjust the mechanical stiffness of the hydrogel to meet the requirements of the wound dressing. Our results demonstrated that this wound dressing has excellent cytocompatibility, antioxidant, antibacterial, and anti-inflammatory activities. Furthermore, the results of the infected wound healing model experiment in rats confirmed that the hydrogel has the ability to rapidly shrink the wound area, prevent wound infection, and promote angiogenesis and collagen deposition. All these results suggest that this hydrogel could be a candidate for the treatment of infected wounds and shed new light on the development of multifunctional wound dressings.

Potential inhibitory activity of phytoconstituents against black fungus: In silico ADMET, molecular docking and MD simulation studies

Mucormycosis or “black fungus” has been currently observed in India, as a secondary infection in COVID-19 infected patients in the post-COVID-stage. Fungus is an uncommon opportunistic infection that affects people who have a weak immune system. In this study, 158 antifungal phytochemicals were screened using molecular docking against glucoamylase enzyme of Rhizopus oryzae to identify potential inhibitors. The docking scores of the selected phytochemicals were compared with Isomaltotriose as a positive control. Most of the compounds showed lower binding energy values than Isomaltotriose (-6.4 kcal/mol). Computational studies also revealed the strongest binding affinity of the screened phytochemicals was Dioscin (-9.4 kcal/mol). Furthermore, the binding interactions of the top ten potential phytochemicals were elucidated and further analyzed. In-silico ADME and toxicity prediction were also evaluated using SwissADME and admetSAR online servers. Compounds Piscisoflavone C, 8-O-methylaverufin and Punicalagin exhibited positive results with the Lipinski filter and drug-likeness and showed mild to moderate of toxicity. Molecular dynamics (MD) simulation (at 300 K for 100 ns) was also employed to the docked ligand-target complex to explore the stability of ligand-target complex, improve docking results, and analyze the molecular mechanisms of protein-target interactions.

Antifungal, Antiviral, and HPLC Analysis of Phenolic and Flavonoid Compounds of Amphiroa anceps Extract

The increasing use of chemical control agents and pesticides to prevent plant disease has resulted in several human and environmental health problems. Seaweeds, e.g., Amphiroa anceps extracts, have significant antimicrobial activities against different human pathogens. However, their anti-phytopathogenic activities are still being investigated. In the present investigation, three fungal isolates were isolated from root rot and grey mold symptomatic strawberry plants and were molecularly identified by ITS primers to Fusarium culmorum, Rhizoctonia solani, and Botrytis cinerea with accession numbers MN398396, MN398398, and MN398400, respectively. In addition, the organic extract of the red alga Amphiroa anceps was assessed for its antifungal activity against the three identified fungal isolates and tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection. At 100 µg/mL, the A. anceps extract had the best biological activity against R. solani, B. cinerea, and TMV infection, with inhibition rates of 66.67%, 40.61%, and 81.5%, respectively. Contrarily, the A. anceps extract exhibited lower activity against F. culmorum, causing inhibition in the fungal mycelia by only 4.4% at the same concentration. The extract’s HPLC analysis revealed the presence of numerous phenolic compounds, including ellagic acid and gallic acid, which had the highest concentrations of 19.05 and 18.36 µg/mL, respectively. In this line, the phytochemical analysis also showed the presence of flavonoids, with the highest concentration recorded for catechin at 12.45 µg/mL. The obtained results revealed for the first time the effect of the A. anceps extract against the plant fungal and viral pathogens, making the seaweed extract a promising source for natural antimicrobial agents.

Ellagic Acid Increases Stress Resistance via Insulin/IGF-1 Signaling Pathway in Caenorhabditis elegans

Ellagic acid is a natural polyphenol found in various fruits and vegetables. Numerous studies have shown that ellagic acid has beneficial effects on human health. In this study, we investigated the stress resistant action of ellagic acid in Caenorhabditis elegans (C. elegans). Notably, 50 μM ellagic acid prolonged the lifespan of C. elegans by 36.25%, 36.22%, 155.1%, and 79.07% under ultraviolet radiation stress, heat stress, oxidative stress, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa infection stress, respectively. Furthermore, the mechanism by which ellagic acid reduces the damage caused by ultraviolet radiation in C. elegans was explored. Ellagic acid could significantly induce the nucleus translocation of DAF-16 and, thereby, activate a series of target genes to resist ultraviolet radiation stress. Moreover, ellagic acid also significantly increased the expression of SOD-3 by 3.61 times and the activity of superoxide dismutase by 3.70 times to clean out harmful reactive oxygen species in C. elegans exposed to ultraviolet radiation stress. In both daf-16 mutant and daf-2; daf-16 double-mutant worms exposed to ultraviolet radiation, ellagic acid could no longer prolong their lifespan. These results indicate that ellagic acid plays an important role in resisting ultraviolet radiation stress in C. elegans, probably in an insulin/IGF-1 signaling pathway-dependent way.

Dietary supplementation ellagic acid on the growth, intestinal immune response, microbiota, and inflammation in weaned piglets

Piglets are susceptible to weaning stress, which weakens the barrier and immune function of the intestinal mucosa, causes inflammation, and ultimately affects animal growth and development. Ellagic acid (EA) is a natural polyphenol dilactone with various biological functions. However, The mechanisms underlying the effects of EA on animal health are still poorly known. Herein, we examined whether dietary supplementation with EA has a positive effect on growth performance, intestinal health, immune response, microbiota, or inflammation in weaned piglets. Sixty weaned piglets (age, 30 days) were randomly divided into two groups: the control group (basic diet) and the test group (basic diet + 500 g/t EA). The pigs were fed for 40 days under the same feeding and management conditions, and the growth performance of each individual was measured. At the end of the feeding period, samples were collected from the small intestinal mucosa for further analysis. Using these tissues, the transcriptome sequences and intestinal microbial diversity were analyzed in both groups. An inflammation model using small intestinal mucosal epithelial cells (IPEC-J2) was also constructed. Dietary EA supplementation significantly increased the average daily weight gain (ADG) and reduced diarrhea rate and serum diamine oxidase (DAO) levels of weaned piglets. Transcriptome sequencing results revealed 401 differentially expressed genes in the jejunum mucosal tissue of pigs in the control and test groups. Of these, 163 genes were up-regulated and 238 were down-regulated. The down-regulated genes were significantly enriched in 10 pathways (false discovery rate < 0.05), including seven pathways related to immune response. The results of bacterial 16s rDNA sequencing show that EA affects the composition of the intestinal microbiota in the cecum and rectum, and reveal significant differences in the abundances of Prevotella_9, Lactobacillus delbrueckii, and Lactobacillus reuteri between the test and control groups (P < 0.05). Experiments using the inflammation model showed that certain doses of EA promote the proliferation of IPEC-J2 cells, increase the relative mRNA expression levels of tight junction-related proteins (ZO-1 and Occludin), improve the compactness of the intestine, reduce the expression of inflammatory factors TNF-α and IL-6, and significantly reduce LPS-induced inflammation in IPEC-J2 cells. In conclusion, we found for the first time that dietary supplementation of EA affects the gut immune response and promotes the beneficial gut microbiota in weaned piglets, reduces the occurrence of inflammatory responses, and thereby promotes the growth and intestinal health of piglets.

Inhibitory and Stimulatory Effects of Fruit Bioactive Compounds on Edible Filamentous Fungi: Potential for Innovative Food Applications

The fermentation of fruit processing residuals (FPRs) with filamentous fungi can provide protein-rich food products. However, FPRs that contain bioactive compounds with antimicrobial properties present a major challenge. In this work, the resistance of two edible filamentous fungi, Rhizopus oligosporus and Neurospora intermedia, to 10 typically inhibiting bioactive compounds available in FPRs (epicatechin, quercetin, ellagic acid, betanin, octanol, hexanal, D-limonene, myrcene, car-3-ene, and ascorbic acid) was examined. These compounds’ inhibitory and stimulatory effects on fungal growth were examined individually. Three different concentrations (2.4, 24, and 240 mg/L) within the natural concentration range of these compounds in FPRs were tested. These bioactive compounds stimulated the growth yield and glucose consumption rate of R. oligosporus, while there was no increase in the biomass yield of N. intermedia. Ellagic acid caused an up to four-fold increase in the biomass yield of R. oligosporus. In addition, octanol and D-limonene showed antifungal effects against N. intermedia. These results may be helpful in the development of fungus-based novel fermented foods.

Enhancing or Inhibitory Effect of Fruit or Vegetable Bioactive Compound on Aspergillus niger and A. oryzae

Fruit and vegetable processing wastes are global challenges but also suitable sources with a variety of nutrients for different fermentative products using bacteria, yeast or fungi. The interaction of microorganisms with bioactive compounds in fruit waste can have inhibitory or enhancing effect on microbial growth. In this study, the antimicrobial effect of 10 bioactive compounds, including octanol, ellagic acid, (−)-epicatechin, quercetin, betanin, ascorbic acid, limonene, hexanal, car-3-ene, and myrcene in the range of 0–240 mg/L on filamentous fungi Aspergillus oryzae and Aspergillus niger were investigated. These fungi were both found to be resistant to all compounds except octanol, which can be used as a natural antifungal agent, specifically against A. oryzae and A. niger contamination. On the contrary, polyphenols (quercetin and ellagic acid), ascorbic acid, and hexanal enhanced A. niger biomass yield 28%, 7.8%, 16%, and 6%, respectively. Furthermore, 240 mg/L car-3-ene was found to increase A. oryzae biomass yield 8%, while a 9% decrease was observed at lower concentration, 24 mg/L. Similarly, up to 17% decrease of biomass yield was observed from betanin and myrcene. The resistant nature of the fungi against FPW bioactive compounds shows the potential of these fungi for further application in waste valorization.

Liposomal Ellagic Acid Alleviates Cyclophosphamide-Induced Toxicity and Eliminates the Systemic Cryptococcus neoformans Infection in Leukopenic Mice

Cryptococcus neoformans infections rose sharply due to rapid increase in the numbers of immunocompromised individuals in recent years. Treatment of Cryptococcosis in immunocompromised persons is largely very challenging and hopeless. Hence, this study aimed to determine the activity of ellagic acid (EA) in the treatment of C. neoformans in cyclophosphamide injected leukopenic mice. A liposomal formulation of ellagic acid (Lip-EA) was prepared and characterized, and its antifungal activity was assessed in comparison to fluconazole (FLZ). The efficacy of the drug treatment was tested by assessing survival rate, fungal burden, and histological analysis in lung tissues. The safety of the drug formulations was tested by investigating hepatic, renal function, and antioxidant levels. The results of the present work demonstrated that Lip-EA, not FLZ, effectively eliminated C. neoformans infection in the leukopenic mice. Mice treated with Lip-EA (40 mg/kg) showed 70% survival rate and highly reduced fungal burden in their lung tissues, whereas the mice treated with FLZ (40 mg/kg) had 20% survival rate and greater fungal load in their lungs. Noteworthy, Lip-EA treatment alleviated cyclophosphamide-induced toxicity and restored hepatic and renal function parameters. Moreover, Lip-EA treatment restored the levels of superoxide dismutase and reduced glutathione and catalase in the lung tissues. The effect of FLZ or EA or Lip-EA against C. neoformans infection was assessed by the histological analysis of lung tissues. Lip-EA effectively reduced influx of inflammatory cells, thickening of alveolar walls, congestion, and hemorrhage. The findings of the present study suggest that Lip-EA may prove to be a promising therapeutic formulation against C. neoformans in immunocompromised persons.

Lactobacillus plantarum strain HT-W104-B1: potential bacterium isolated from Malaysian fermented foods for control of the dermatophyte Trichophyton rubrum

The objective was to screen and evaluate the anti-fungal activity of lactic acid bacteria (LABs) isolated from Malaysian fermented foods against two Trichophyton species. A total of 66 LAB strains were screened using dual culture assays. This showed that four LAB strains were very effective in inhibiting growth of T. rubrum but not T. interdigitale. More detailed studies with Lactobacillus plantarum strain HT-W104-B1 showed that the supernatant was mainly responsible for inhibiting the growth of T. rubrum. The minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC), inhibitory concentration, the 50% growth inhibition (IC₅₀) and minimum fungicide concentration (MFC) were 20 mg/mL, 14 mg/mL and 30 mg/mL, respectively. A total of six metabolites were found in the supernatant, with the two major metabolites being L-lactic acid (19.1 mg/g cell dry weight (CDW)) and acetic acid (2.2 mg/g CDW). A comparative study on keratin agar media showed that the natural mixture in the supernatants predominantly contained L-lactic and acetic acid, and this significantly controlled the growth of T. rubrum. The pure two individual compounds were less effective. Potential exists for application of the natural mixture of compounds for the treatment of skin infection by T. rubrum.

Ellagic Acid Inhibits Trichophyton rubrum Growth via Affecting Ergosterol Biosynthesis and Apoptotic Induction

Background

Trichophyton rubrum, among other dermatophytes, is a major causative agent for superficial dermatomycoses like onychomycosis and tinea pedis, especially among pediatric and geriatric populations. Ellagic acid (EA) and shikonin (SK) have been reported to have many bioactivities, including antifungal activity. However, the mechanism of EA and SK on Trichophyton rubrum has not yet been reported.

Objectives

The purposes of this study were to evaluate the antifungal activities of EA and SK against Trichophyton rubrum and to illuminate the underlying action mechanisms.

Methods

The effect of EA (64, 128, and 256 μg/mL) and SK (8, 4, and 2 μg/mL) on Trichophyton rubrum was investigated with different doses via detecting cell viability, ultrastructure with using a scanning electron microscope (SEM), cell apoptosis and necrosis by using the flow cytometry instrument technique (FCIT), and the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway-related fungal cell membrane key gene expressions in vitro.

Results

SEM detection revealed that the T. rubrum cell surface was shrivelled, folded, and showed deformation and expansion, visible surface peeling, and broken hyphae, and cell contents overflowed after being treated with EA and SK; the cell apoptosis rate was significantly increased in dose-dependent manner after T. rubrum was treated with EA and SK; the qPCR results showed that mRNA expression of MEP4 and SUB1 was downregulated in EA- and SK-treated groups.

Conclusions

Overall, our results revealed the underlying antifungal mechanism of EA and SK, which may be related to the destruction of the fungal cell membrane and inhibition of C14 demethylase and the catalytic rate of squalene cyclooxidase in the ergosterol biosynthesis pathway via downregulation of MEP4 and SUB1, suggesting that EA and SK have the potential to be developed further as a natural antifungal agent for clinical use.

Human skin models: From healthy to disease-mimetic systems; characteristics and applications

Skin drug delivery is an emerging route in drug development, leading to an urgent need to understand the behaviour of active pharmaceutical ingredients within the skin. Given, As one of the body's first natural defences, the barrier properties of skin provide an obstacle to the successful outcome of any skin drug therapy. To elucidate the mechanisms underlying this barrier, reductionist strategies have designed several models with different levels of complexity, using non-biological and biological components. Besides the detail of information and resemblance to human skin in vivo, offered by each in vitro model, the technical and economic efforts involved must also be considered when selecting the most suitable model. This review provides an outline of the commonly used skin models, including healthy and diseased conditions, in-house developed and commercialized models, their advantages and limitations, and an overview of the new trends in skin-engineered models.

Abundant Extractable Metabolites from Temperate Tree Barks: The Specific Antimicrobial Activity of Prunus Avium Extracts

Tree barks are mainly considered as wood wastes from forestry activities, but represent valuable resources as they may contain antimicrobial compounds. Here, we aimed to evaluate the possible antimicrobial activities of bark extracts and to characterize the chemical composition of the most active extract. Ten methanol bark extracts were tested in vitro against 17 bacterial strains and 5 yeast strains, through minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) and minimum bactericidal (or fungicidal) concentration (MBC/MFC) assays. The extract from Prunus avium (E2-4) displayed the largest bactericidal activity against Gram-positive bacteria, with a lethal effect on 6 out of 8 strains. Antibiofilm assays of E2-4 were performed by crystal violet staining and enumeration of adhered bacteria. Assays demonstrated a biofilm inhibitory effect of E2-4 against Staphylococcus aureus CIP 53.154 at concentrations equal to or higher than 250 µg/mL. Chemical profiling of E2-4 by ¹³C nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) revealed the presence of dihydrowogonin as a major constituent of the extract. E2-4 was fractionated by centrifugal partition chromatography and the three fractions containing dihydrowogonin were tested for their antibacterial and antibiofilm activities, revealing similar activities to those of E2-4. Dihydrowogonin was positively assessed as an interesting antimicrobial compound, which could be valued from wastes of Prunus avium barks.

Combination of probiotics with different functions alleviate DSS-induced colitis by regulating intestinal microbiota, IL-10, and barrier function

The potential of probiotics for treating ulcerative colitis (UC) has attracted increasing attention. However, more studies are still needed to guide physicians on the proper selection and use of probiotics. Here, we propose that combination of multiple probiotics with different functions can reduce intestinal inflammation. In this study, the effects of probiotics (Lactobacillus reuteri, Bacillus coagulans, Bifidobacterium longum, and Clostridium butyricum) on the physiology and histopathology of colon were evaluated in a dextran sulfate sodium (DSS)-induced colitis mouse model. The combined species, as well as the species individually, were tested and compared with sulfasalazine (SASP) and two Chinese herbal therapies. Results show that the functions of the four probiotic strains were different in regulating intestinal immunity and barrier function. The four-species probiotic cocktail was more effective than the species individually and anti-inflammatory drugs in repairing the dysbiosis of mucosal microbial ecology and reducing intestinal inflammation. The multi-strain probiotic mixture increased the proportion of beneficial bacteria and decreased the proportion of pro-inflammatory bacteria in the colonic mucosa. In addition, probiotic mixture significantly enhanced the expression of IL-10 and intestinal barrier function. These results suggest that a combination of multiple probiotics with different functions has synergistic effects and can restore the balance of interactions between microorganisms and immunological niches.

Chemical composition, antibacterial activity and related mechanism of valonia and shell from Quercus variabilis Blume (Fagaceae) against Salmonella paratyphi a and Staphylococcus aureus

BACKGROUND

Plant secondary metabolites and phytochemicals that exhibit strong bioactivities have potential to be developed as safe and efficient natural antimicrobials against food contamination and addressing antimicrobial resistance caused by the overuse of chemical synthetic preservative. In this study, the chemical composition, antibacterial activities and related mechanism of the extracts of the valonia and the shell of Quercus variabilis Blume were studied to determine its potential as a safe and efficient natural antimicrobial.

METHODS

The phenolic compositions of valonia and shell extracts were determined by folin-ciocalteau colourimetric method, sodium borohydride/chloranil-based assay and the aluminium chloride method and then further identified by the reverse-phase HPLC analysis. The antibacterial activities of valonia and shell extracts were evaluated by the agar disk diffusion method and agar dilution method. The related antibacterial mechanism was explored successively by the membrane of pathogens effect, phosphorous metabolism, whole-cell proteins and the microbial morphology under scanning electron microscopy.

RESULTS

The n-butanol fraction and water fraction of valonia along with n-butanol fraction of the shell contains enrich phenolics including ellagic acid, theophylline, caffeic acid and tannin acid. The n-butanol fraction and ethanol crude extracts of valonia exhibited strong antibacterial activities against Salmonella paratyphi A (S. paratyphi A) and Staphylococcus aureus (S. aureus) with the DIZ values ranged from 10.89 ± 0.12 to 15.92 ± 0.44, which were greater than that of the Punica granatum (DIZ: 10.22 ± 0.18 and 10.30 ± 0.21). The MIC values of the n-butanol fraction and ethanol crude extracts of valonia against S. paratyphi A and S. aureus were 1.25 mg/ml and 0.625 mg/ml. The related antibacterial mechanism of n-butanol fraction and ethanol crude extracts of valonia may be attributed to their strong impact on membrane permeability and cellular metabolism. Those extracts exhibited strong antibacterial activity according to inhibit the synthesis of bacterial proteins and seriously change morphological structure of bacterial cells.

CONCLUSIONS

The n-butanol fraction and ethanol crude extracts of valonia had reasonably good antibacterial activities against S. paratyphi A and S. aureus. This study suggests possible application of valonia and shell as natural antimicrobials or preservatives for food and medical application.

In vitro models of dermatophyte infection to investigate epidermal barrier alterations

Fungal infections of the skin, known as dermatophytoses, are initiated at the epidermal barrier and lead to dysfunctions of the stratum corneum and cornified skin appendages. Dermatophytosis affects a significant part of the human population and, despite the availability of effective treatments, its prevalence is still increasing. Numerous dermatophyte species are able to induce lesions in both animals and humans, with different clinical pictures and host inflammatory responses. The understanding of the infectious process and of tissue responses has been impeded by discrepancies between observations in vivo or in research models. Indeed, cells cultured as monolayers do not undergo the keratinization process required to study the adherence and invasion of dermatophytes. Animal models lack relevance to study human dermatophytosis because of species-specific differences in the development of lesions and inflammatory responses. This review focuses on the recent development of cultured human skin equivalents, which partly overcomes those limitations and allows improved understanding of the pathogenesis of dermatophytosis in human being, especially the impacts of infection on epidermal barrier integrity.

Chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller.) Burs Extracts and Functional Compounds: UHPLC-UV-HRMS Profiling, Antioxidant Activity, and Inhibitory Effects on Phytopathogenic Fungi

Chestnut (Castanea sativa Miller.) burs (CSB) represent a solid waste produced during the edible fruit harvesting. Their usual disposal in the field increases the environmental and economic impact of the agricultural process. HPLC-UV-HRMS profiling revealed that CSB organic and aqueous extracts (CSB-M, CSB-H, CSB-A) contain several hydrolyzable tannins, mainly ellagitannins, and glycoside flavonols. Ellagic acid (EA) and chestanin are predominant components (5–79 and 1–13 mg/g dry extract, respectively). NMR analysis confirmed the chemical structures of the major constituents from CSB-M. The extracts displayed a significant scavenging activity against DPPH^• (EC₅₀ 12.64–24.94 µg/mL) and ABTS^•+ radicals (TEAC value 2.71–3.52 mM Trolox/mg extract). They were effective in inhibiting the mycelial growth (EC₅₀ 6.04–15.51 mg/mL) and spore germination (EC₅₀ 2.22–11.17 mg/mL) of Alternaria alternata and Fusarium solani. At the highest concentration, CSB-M was also active against Botrytis cinerea both in mycelium and spore form (EC₅₀ 64.98 and 16.33 mg/mL). The EA contributed to the antifungal activity of extracts (EC₅₀ on spore germination 13.33–112.64 µg/mL). Our results can support the upgrading of chestnut burs from agricultural wastes to a resource of natural fungicides for managing fruit and vegetable diseases.

Compounds from Terminalia mantaly L. (Combretaceae) Stem Bark Exhibit Potent Inhibition against Some Pathogenic Yeasts and Enzymes of Metabolic Significance

Background: Pathogenic yeasts resistance to current drugs emphasizes the need for new, safe, and cost-effective drugs. Also, new inhibitors are needed to control the effects of enzymes that are implicated in metabolic dysfunctions such as cancer, obesity, and epilepsy. Methods: The anti-yeast extract from Terminalia mantaly (Combretaceae) was fractionated and the structures of the isolated compounds established by means of spectroscopic analysis and comparison with literature data. Activity was assessed against Candida albicans, C. parapsilosis and C. krusei using the microdilution method, and against four enzymes of metabolic significance: glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase, human erythrocyte carbonic anhydrase I and II, and glutathione S-transferase. Results: Seven compounds, 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic acid 4'-O-α-rhamnopyranoside; 3-O-methylellagic acid; arjungenin or 2,3,19,23-tetrahydroxyolean-12-en-28-oïc acid; arjunglucoside or 2,3,19,23-tetrahydroxyolean-12-en-28-oïc acid glucopyranoside; 2α,3α,24-trihydroxyolean-11,13(18)-dien-28-oïc acid; stigmasterol; and stigmasterol 3-O-β-d-glucopyranoside were isolated from the extract. Among those, 3,3'-di-O-methylellagic acid 4'-O-α-rhamnopyranoside, 3-O-methylellagic acid, and arjunglucoside showed anti-yeast activity comparable to that of reference fluconazole with minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) below 32 µg/mL. Besides, Arjunglucoside potently inhibited the tested enzymes with 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC50) below 4 µM and inhibitory constant (Ki) <3 µM. Conclusions: The results achieved indicate that further SAR studies will likely identify potent hit derivatives that should subsequently enter the drug development pipeline.

Euphorbia humifusa Willd exerts inhibition of breast cancer cell invasion and metastasis through inhibition of TNFα-induced MMP-9 expression

Background

Breast cancer is the most common type of malignancy in women worldwide. Euphorbia humifusa Willd (EuH) is a plant that is widely used as a traditional medicine. However, no systemic studies on the anti-cancer effects of EuH have been reported. The aim of this study is to evaluate the anti-metastatic effect of the EuH.

Methods

Ethyl acetate fraction was prepared from EuH methanol extracts (EA/EuH). Inhibitory effect of EA/EuH on cell migration was determined using an in vitro scratch-wound healing assay. The anti-invasive activity was determined by in vitro three-dimensional spheroid culture system and in vivo syngenic experimental lung metastasis experiment. Gene expression profiles were analyzed by using RT-PCR, real-time PCR, and luciferase reporter assay systems.

Results

Ethyl acetate fraction from the EuH extract (EA/EuH) inhibited the migration and invasive capabilities of highly metastatic MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells and attenuated syngeneic lung metastasis of mouse 4 T1 breast cancer cells in vivo. Mechanistically, EA/EuH decreased tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNFα)-induced matrix metalloproteinase (MMP)-9 mRNA expression through the inhibition of NF-κB activity in MDA-MB-231 cells.

Conclusion

EuH may be beneficial in the prevention of invasion and metastasis of early stage breast cancer and can be served as an anti-metastatic agent or adjuvant therapy against metastatic breast cancer.

Inositol Polyphosphate Kinases, Fungal Virulence and Drug Discovery

Opportunistic fungi are a major cause of morbidity and mortality world-wide, particularly in immunocompromised individuals. Developing new treatments to combat invasive fungal disease is challenging given that fungal and mammalian host cells are eukaryotic, with similar organization and physiology. Even therapies targeting unique fungal cell features have limitations and drug resistance is emerging. New approaches to the development of antifungal drugs are therefore needed urgently. Cryptococcus neoformans, the commonest cause of fungal meningitis worldwide, is an accepted model for studying fungal pathogenicity and driving drug discovery. We recently characterized a phospholipase C (Plc1)-dependent pathway in C. neoformans comprising of sequentially-acting inositol polyphosphate kinases (IPK), which are involved in synthesizing inositol polyphosphates (IP). We also showed that the pathway is essential for fungal cellular function and pathogenicity. The IP products of the pathway are structurally diverse, each consisting of an inositol ring, with phosphate (P) and pyrophosphate (PP) groups covalently attached at different positions. This review focuses on (1) the characterization of the Plc1/IPK pathway in C. neoformans; (2) the identification of PP-IP₅ (IP₇) as the most crucial IP species for fungal fitness and virulence in a mouse model of fungal infection; and (3) why IPK enzymes represent suitable candidates for drug development.