Combination of artemisinin-based natural compounds from Artemisia annua L. for the treatment of malaria: Pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic studies

Optimization of in vivo antimalarial efficacy of combinations of aqueous leaf extracts of Artemisia annua L., Vernonia amygdalina Del, and Microglossa pyrifolia (Lam.) Kuntze using factorial design

BACKGROUND

Malaria continues to be among the leading causes of mortality in Africa including Uganda, with the emergence of parasite resistance to the first-line therapeutics (Artemisinin- based Combination Therapy). To find new therapeutics, this study has reported an in vivo antimalarial efficacy of combinations of Artemisia annua (Aa), Vernonia amygdalina (Va), and Microglossa pyrifolia (Mp) in mice model using factorial design.

METHODS

The Aa and Va were extracted by hot infusion, and Mp by cold maceration using distilled water. The dry extracts were screened for different phytochemicals, and later subjected to in vivo antimalarial activity using Peter's 4-day suppressive test. The 23 factorial design used Aa, Va, and Mp aqueous extracts as independent variables at two levels (-1 and 1), and the percentage chemo suppression and survival time as response variables. The data was analyzed using Design Expert 13 and GraphPad Prism employing ANOVA linear regression modelling and t-test respectively.

RESULTS

All the extracts had alkaloids, phenols, saponins, terpenoids, cardiac glycosides, tannins, steroids, and carbohydrates. The various combinations showed chemo suppression from 41.5 to 91.0% and survival time of 19 to 23 days. The first three combinations having lower levels of Aa (200 mg/kg) exhibited higher chemo suppression (> 90%) compared to Artemisinin-Lumefantrine positive control at 4 mg/kg with 87.5%. Lower levels of Aa in the combinations contributed to high chemo suppression while higher levels of Va prolonged survival times. Interactions between Aa and Mp showed higher chemo suppression, and that between Aa and Va increased survival time. An optimized prediction of 94.4% chemo suppression was made by the ANOVA model at lower levels of Aa and Va, and a higher level of Mp, which is similar to an experimental run which gave a response of 90. 6%.

CONCLUSION

An optimum combination of the three plants as a natural herbal antimalarial therapy was obtained using factorial design, and it offers an alternative to first line Artemisinin based Combination Therapy (ACTs) as parasite resistance looms. This combination could be further developed into a standard phytopharmaceutical and subjected to Randomized Controlled Trials (RCTs).

In vivo antimalarial efficacy of Artemisia afra powder suspensions

BACKGROUND

A global death toll of 608,000 in 2022 and emerging parasite resistance to artemisinin, the mainstay of antimalarial chemotherapy derived from the Chinese herb Artemisia annua, urge the development of novel antimalarials. A clinical trial has found high antimalarial potency for aqueous extracts of A. annua as well as its African counterpart Artemisia afra, which contains only trace amounts of artemisinin. The artemisinin-independent antimalarial activity of A. afra points to the existence of other antimalarials present in the plant. However, the publication was retracted due to ethical and methodological concerns in the trial, so the only evidence for antimalarial activity of A. afra is built on in vitro studies reporting efficacy only in the microgram per milliliter range.

HYPOTHESIS

Our study aims to shed more light on the controversy around the antimalarial activity of A. afra by assessing its efficacy in mice. In particular, we are testing the hypothesis that A. afra contains a pro-drug that is inactive in vitro but active in vivo after metabolization by the mammalian host.

METHODS

Plasmodium berghei-infected mice were treated once or thrice (on three consecutive days) with various doses of A. afra, A. annua, or pure artemisinin.

RESULTS

Aqueous powder suspensions of A. annua but not A. afra showed antimalarial activity in mice.

CONCLUSION

Our experiments conducted in mice do not support the pro-drug hypothesis.

Targeted screening of the synergistic components in Artemisia annua L. leading to enhanced antiplasmodial potency of artemisinin based on a "top down" PD-PK approach

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Artemisinin (ART) showed enhanced antimalarial potency in the herb Artemisia annua L. (A. annua), from which ART is isolated. Increased absorption of ART with inhibited metabolism in the plant matrix is an underlying mechanism. Several synergistic components have been reported based on a "bottom-up" approach, i.e., traditional isolation followed by pharmacokinetic and/or pharmacodynamic evaluation.

AIM OF THE STUDY

In this study, we employed a "top-down" approach based on in vivo antimalarial and pharmacokinetic studies to identify synergistic components in A. annua.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Two A. annua extracts in different chemical composition were obtained by extraction using ethyl acetate (EA) and petroleum ether (PE). The synergistic antimalarial activity of ART in two extracts was compared both in vitro (Plasmodium falciparum) and in vivo (murine Plasmodium yoelii). For the PD-PK correlation analysis, the pharmacokinetic profiles of ART and its major metabolite (ART-M) were investigated in healthy rats after a single oral administration of pure ART (20 mg/kg) or equivalent ART in each A. annua extract. A liquid chromatography-tandem high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS)-based analytical strategy was then applied for efficient component classification and structural characterization of the differential components in the targeted extract with a higher antimalarial potency. Major components isolated from the targeted extract were then evaluated for their synergistic effect in the same proportion.

RESULTS

Compared with pure ART (ED50, 5.6 mg/kg), ART showed enhanced antimalarial potency in two extracts in vivo (ED50 of EA, 2.9 mg/kg; ED50 of PE, 1.6 mg/kg), but not in vitro (IC50, 15.0-20.0 nM). A significant increase (1.7-fold) in ART absorption (AUC0-t) was found in rats after a single oral dose of equivalent ART in PE but not in EA; however, no significant change in the metabolic capability (AUCART-M/AUCART) was found for ART in either extract. The differential component analysis of the two extracts showed a higher composition of sesquiterpene compounds, especially component AB (3.0% in PE vs. 0.9% in EA) and component AA (14.1% in PE vs. 5.1% in EA). Two target sesquiterpenes were isolated and identified as arteannuin B (AB) and artemisinic acid (AA). The synergism between ART and AB/AA in the same proportion with PE extract (20:1.6:7.6, mg/kg) was verified by a pharmacokinetic study in rats.

CONCLUSIONS

A "top-down" strategy based on PD-PK studies was successfully employed to identify synergistic components for ART in A. annua. Two sesquiterpene compounds (arteannuin B and artemisinic acid) could enhance the antimalarial potency of ART by increasing its absorption.

Scopoletin: a review of its pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity

Scopoletin is a coumarin synthesized by diverse medicinal and edible plants, which plays a vital role as a therapeutic and chemopreventive agent in the treatment of a variety of diseases. In this review, an overview of the pharmacology, pharmacokinetics, and toxicity of scopoletin is provided. In addition, the prospects and outlook for future studies are appraised. Scopoletin is indicated to have antimicrobial, anticancer, anti-inflammation, anti-angiogenesis, anti-oxidation, antidiabetic, antihypertensive, hepatoprotective, and neuroprotective properties and immunomodulatory effects in both in vitro and in vivo experimental trials. In addition, it is an inhibitor of various enzymes, including choline acetyltransferase, acetylcholinesterase, and monoamine oxidase. Pharmacokinetic studies have demonstrated the low bioavailability, rapid absorption, and extensive metabolism of scopoletin. These properties may be associated with its poor solubility in aqueous media. In addition, toxicity research indicates the non-toxicity of scopoletin to most cell types tested to date, suggesting that scopoletin will neither induce treatment-associated mortality nor abnormal performance with the test dose. Considering its favorable pharmacological activities, scopoletin has the potential to act as a drug candidate in the treatment of cancer, liver disease, diabetes, neurodegenerative disease, and mental disorders. In view of its merits and limitations, scopoletin is a suitable lead compound for the development of new, efficient, and low-toxicity derivatives. Additional studies are needed to explore its molecular mechanisms and targets, verify its toxicity, and promote its oral bioavailability.

Management and control of coccidiosis in poultry - A review

Poultry coccidiosis is an intestinal infection caused by an intracellular parasitic protozoan of the genus Eimeria. Coccidia-induced gastrointestinal inflammation results in large economic losses, hence finding methods to decrease its prevalence is critical for industry participants and academic researchers. It has been demonstrated that coccidiosis can be effectively controlled and managed by employing anticoccidial chemical compounds. However, as a result of their extensive use, anticoccidial drug resistance in Eimeria species has raised concerns. Phytochemical/herbal medicines (Artemisia annua, Bidens pilosa, and garlic) seem to be a promising strategy for preventing coccidiosis, in accordance with the "anticoccidial chemical-free" standards. The impact of herbal supplements on poultry coccidiosis is based on the reduction of oocyst output by preventing the proliferation and growth of Eimeria species in chicken gastrointestinal tissues and lowering intestinal permeability via increased epithelial turnover. This review provides a thorough up-to-date assessment of the state of the art and technologies in the prevention and treatment of coccidiosis in chickens, including the most used phytochemical medications, their mode of action, and the applicable legal framework in the European Union.

Artemisinin as a therapeutic vs. its more complex Artemisia source material

Covering: up to 2017-2022Many small molecule drugs are first discovered in nature, commonly the result of long ethnopharmacological use by people, and then characterized and purified from their biological sources. Traditional medicines are often more sustainable, but issues related to source consistency and efficacy present challenges. Modern medicine has focused solely on purified molecules, but evidence is mounting to support some of the more traditional uses of medicinal biologics. When is a more traditional delivery of a therapeutic appropriate and warranted? What studies are required to establish validity of a traditional medicine approach? Artemisia annua and A. afra are two related but unique medicinal plant species with long histories of ethnopharmacological use. A. annua produces the sesquiterpene lactone antimalarial drug, artemisinin, while A. afra produces at most, trace amounts of the compound. Both species also have an increasing repertoire of modern scientific and pharmacological data that make them ideal candidates for a case study. Here accumulated recent data on A. annua and A. afra are reviewed as a basis for establishing a decision tree for querying their therapeutic use, as well as that of other medicinal plant species.

Future antimalarials from Artemisia? A rationale for natural product mining against drug-refractory Plasmodium stages

Covering: up to 2023Infusions of the plants Artemisia annua and A. afra are gaining broad popularity to prevent or treat malaria. There is an urgent need to address this controversial public health question by providing solid scientific evidence in relation to these uses. Infusions of either species were shown to inhibit the asexual blood stages, the liver stages including the hypnozoites, but also the sexual stages, the gametocytes, of Plasmodium parasites. Elimination of hypnozoites and sterilization of mature gametocytes remain pivotal elements of the radical cure of P. vivax, and the blockage of P. vivax and P. falciparum transmission, respectively. Drugs active against these stages are restricted to the 8-aminoquinolines primaquine and tafenoquine, a paucity worsened by their double dependence on the host genetic to elicit clinical activity without severe toxicity. Besides artemisinin, these Artemisia spp. contain many natural products effective against Plasmodium asexual blood stages, but their activity against hypnozoites and gametocytes was never investigated. In the context of important therapeutic issues, we provide a review addressing (i) the role of artemisinin in the bioactivity of these Artemisia infusions against specific parasite stages, i.e., alone or in association with other phytochemicals; (ii) the mechanisms of action and biological targets in Plasmodium of ca. 60 infusion-specific Artemisia phytochemicals, with an emphasis on drug-refractory parasite stages (i.e., hypnozoites and gametocytes). Our objective is to guide the strategic prospecting of antiplasmodial natural products from these Artemisia spp., paving the way toward novel antimalarial "hit" compounds either naturally occurring or Artemisia-inspired.

Secondary Metabolites Isolated from Artemisia afra and Artemisia annua and Their Anti-Malarial, Anti-Inflammatory and Immunomodulating Properties-Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics: A Review

There are over 500 species of the genus Artemisia in the Asteraceae family distributed over the globe, with varying potentials to treat different ailments. Following the isolation of artemisinin (a potent anti-malarial compound with a sesquiterpene backbone) from Artemisia annua, the phytochemical composition of this species has been of interest over recent decades. Additionally, the number of phytochemical investigations of other species, including those of Artemisia afra in a search for new molecules with pharmacological potentials, has increased in recent years. This has led to the isolation of several compounds from both species, including a majority of monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and polyphenols with varying pharmacological activities. This review aims to discuss the most important compounds present in both plant species with anti-malarial properties, anti-inflammatory potentials, and immunomodulating properties, with an emphasis on their pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics properties. Additionally, the toxicity of both plants and their anti-malaria properties, including those of other species in the genus Artemisia, is discussed. As such, data were collected via a thorough literature search in web databases, such as ResearchGate, ScienceDirect, Google scholar, PubMed, Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical databases, up to 2022. A distinction was made between compounds involved in a direct anti-plasmodial activity and those expressing anti-inflammatory and immunomodulating activities or anti-fever properties. For pharmacokinetics activities, a distinction was made between compounds influencing bioavailability (CYP effect or P-Glycoprotein effect) and those affecting the stability of pharmacodynamic active components.

A review of efficacy and safety of Ugandan anti-malarial plants with application of RITAM score

BACKGROUND

Malaria, a treatable disease mainly caused by Plasmodium falciparum has remained a health challenge in Africa, a continent that accounted for 96% of total global cases and deaths in 2021. Uganda, a malaria endemic country is experiencing malaria parasite resistance to some of the drugs used in the artemisinin-based combination therapy (ACT). In an effort to prioritize herbal medicines for new product development, this review synthesized the available safety and efficacy literature on the Ugandan anti-malarial plants to suggest most effective herbal plants.

METHODS

Literature was exhaustively searched using engines and databases, such as Google scholar, Pubmed, and Scopus-indexed journals during the period of June 2020-December 2021. In the first phase, information on ethnobotanical uses of anti-malarial plants in Uganda was gathered and synthetized to generate a list of plants, followed by data on anti-malarial efficacy (both in vitro and in vivo) on each listed plant. Minimum inhibitory concentrations (µg/ml), and % parasite suppression for every plant were scored using The Research Initiative on Traditional and Antimalarial Methods (RITAM) scoring system. The best twenty (20) plants were evaluated for acute safety (LD₅₀) data in rat model, plant parts used, ease of cultivation, presence of clinical studies and other relevant factors for suggesting the best three (3) plants for future anti-malarial product development.

RESULTS

Over one hundred twenty-six (126) plant species are used in Uganda for treatment of malaria in local communities. Out of these, about 33% (41) have been studied for efficacy and safety, with Artemisia annua and Vernonia amygdalina being the most extensively studied and among the best twenty (20) anti-malarial plants in Uganda. Both are limited by parasite recrudescence in clinical studies. Microglossa pyrifolia, a very potent plant (IC50 = 0.03 - 0.05 µg/ml has potential to penetrate the liver and could ameliorate the challenge of recrudescence if combined with A. annua and V. amygdalina in a polyherbal formulation.

CONCLUSION

There are many plants with promising potential for malaria treatment in Uganda and a herbal combination of A. annua, V. amydalina and M. pyrifolia could offer the next herbal ACT if carefully studied and developed.

A Discovery-Based Metabolomic Approach Using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS Reveals Potential Antimalarial Compounds Present in Artemisia annua L

In 1972, Nobel laureate Youyou Tu's research team conducted clinical trials on the dried material of Artemisia annua L. from Beijing extracted by ether and then treated with alkali (called "ether neutral dry"), which showed that artemisinin was not the only antimalarial component contained. The biosynthesis of sesquiterpenoids in A. annua has increased exponentially after unremitting cultivation efforts, and the plant resources are now quite different from those in the 1970s. In consideration of emerging artemisinin resistance, it is of great theoretical and practical value to further study the antimalarial activity of A. annua and explore its causes. The purpose of this study is to clarify scientific questions, such as "What ingredients are synergistic with artemisinin in A. annua?", and "Are there non-artemisinin antimalarial ingredients in A. annua?". In this paper, Beijing wild A. annua was used as a control and two representative cultivation species of A. annua were selected to evaluate the antimalarial activity of the herbal medicine. The antimalarial activity of different extracts on mice was studied using the Peters' four-day suppressive test. UPLC-Q-TOF-MS was used to obtain mass spectrum data for all samples, and a UNIFI platform was used for identification. A multivariate statistical method was used to screen the different compounds with positive correlations. The antimalarial activity of different components from the ether extract and alkali treatments was determined and antimalarial components other than artemisinin were obtained. A total of 24 flavonoids, 68 sesquiterpenoids and 21 other compounds were identified. Compounds associated with differential antimalarial activity were identified. The material basis for the antimalarial activity of A. annua was clarified. The antimalarial components of A. annua include two categories: first, artemisinin and non-artemisinin antimalarial active components, of which the non-artemisinin antimalarial active components may include 5α-hydroperoxy-eudesma-4(15),11-diene; second, several antimalarial synergistic ingredients in A. annua, including arteanniun B, arteanniun B analogues and polymethoxy flavonoids.

Artemisia Extracts and Artemisinin-Based Antimalarials for COVID-19 Management: Could These Be Effective Antivirals for COVID-19 Treatment?

As the world desperately searches for ways to treat the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, a growing number of people are turning to herbal remedies. The Artemisia species, such as A. annua and A. afra, in particular, exhibit positive effects against severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) infection and COVID-19 related symptoms. A. annua is a source of artemisinin, which is active against malaria, and also exhibits potential for other diseases. This has increased interest in artemisinin's potential for drug repurposing. Artemisinin-based combination therapies, so-called ACTs, have already been recognized as first-line treatments against malaria. Artemisia extract, as well as ACTs, have demonstrated inhibition of SARS-CoV-2. Artemisinin and its derivatives have also shown anti-inflammatory effects, including inhibition of interleukin-6 (IL-6) that plays a key role in the development of severe COVID-19. There is now sufficient evidence in the literature to suggest the effectiveness of Artemisia, its constituents and/or artemisinin derivatives, to fight against the SARS-CoV-2 infection by inhibiting its invasion, and replication, as well as reducing oxidative stress and inflammation, and mitigating lung damage.

Oxidative Stress in Malaria: Potential Benefits of Antioxidant Therapy

Malaria is an infectious disease and a serious public health problem in the world, with 3.3 billion people in endemic areas in 100 countries and about 200 million new cases each year, resulting in almost 1 million deaths in 2018. Although studies look for strategies to eradicate malaria, it is necessary to know more about its pathophysiology to understand the underlying mechanisms involved, particularly the redox balance, to guarantee success in combating this disease. In this review, we addressed the involvement of oxidative stress in malaria and the potential benefits of antioxidant supplementation as an adjuvant antimalarial therapy.

An overview of the anti-SARS-CoV-2 properties of Artemisia annua, its antiviral action, protein-associated mechanisms, and repurposing for COVID-19 treatment

Artemisia annua and its phytocompounds have a rich history in the research and treatment of malaria, rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosus, and other diseases. Currently, the World Health Organization recommends artemisinin-based combination therapy as the first-line treatment for multi-drug-resistant malaria. Due to the various research articles on the use of antimalarial drugs to treat coronaviruses, a question is raised: would A. annua and its compounds provide anti-severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus-2 (SARS-CoV-2) properties? PubMed/MEDLINE, Scopus, and Google Scholar were searched for peer-reviewed articles that investigated the antiviral effects and mechanisms of A. annua and its phytochemicals against SARS-CoVs. Particularly, articles that evidenced the herb’s role in inhibiting the coronavirus-host proteins were favored. Nineteen studies were retrieved. From these, fourteen in silico molecular docking studies demonstrated potential inhibitory properties of artemisinins against coronavirus-host proteins including 3CL^PRO, S protein, N protein, E protein, cathepsin-L, helicase protein, nonstructural protein 3 (nsp3), nsp10, nsp14, nsp15, and glucose-regulated protein 78 receptor. Collectively, A. annua constituents may impede the SARS-CoV-2 attachment, membrane fusion, internalization into the host cells, and hinder the viral replication and transcription process. This is the first comprehensive overview of the application of compounds from A. annua against SARS-CoV-2/coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) describing all target proteins. A. annua’s biological properties, the signaling pathways implicated in the COVID-19, and the advantages and disadvantages for repurposing A. annua compounds are discussed. The combination of A. annua’s biological properties, action on different signaling pathways and target proteins, and a multi-drug combined-therapy approach may synergistically inhibit SARS-CoV-2 and assist in the COVID-19 treatment. Also, A. annua may modulate the host immune response to better fight the infection.

Potential Antioxidant and Anti-Inflammatory Function of Gynura procumbens Polyphenols Ligand

The antioxidant and anti-inflammatory potentials of polyphenols contained in Gynura procumbens (GP) extract were systematically analyzed. Polyphenols in GP were analyzed for nine peaks using high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) combined with mass spectrometry (MS), and quantitatively determined through each standard. A total of nine polyphenolic compounds were identified in the samples and their MS data were tabulated. To determine the potential of bioactive ingredients targeting DPPH and COX-2, we analyzed them by ultrafiltration combined with LC. The results identified the major compounds exhibiting binding affinity for DPPH and COX-2. Caffeic acid, kynurenic acid, and chlorogenic acid showed excellent binding affinity to DPPH and COX-2, suggesting that they can be considered as major active compounds. Additionally, the anti-inflammatory effect of GP was confirmed in vitro. This study will not only be used to provide basic data for the application of GP to the food and pharmaceutical industries, but will also provide information on effective screening methods for other medicinal plants.

Artesunate Attenuated the Progression of Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm in a Mouse Model

BACKGROUND

The inflammatory reaction is an important mechanism of pathogenesis of abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA). Artesunate (AS) has been found to have anti-inflammatory effects in cardiovascular disease. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether AS could inhibit the development of AAA.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

AngII infused ApoE (-/-) male mice were selected as AAA model. Mice were spilt into three groups, the experimental control group (AngII), the AS treatment group (AngII + AS) and the negative control group (Vehicle) with 14 in each group. Daily administration of AS (100 mg/kg/d) or vehicle performed 3 day before the perfusion. At the end of the 28-day experiment, animal ultrasound and electronic digital caliper were used to measure the diameter of abdominal aorta. Histologic assays were performed to observe the microstructure of the aorta wall. Immunofluorescence staining was performed to detect inflammatory cells, as well as the levels of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs). The transcription of cytokines and adhesion molecules were investigated by real-time fluorescence quantitative PCR (qPCR). Western blotting was performed to determine whether the NF-κB pathway is involved in the mechanism.

RESULTS

While AS failed to reduce the incidence of AAA, AS effectively reduced the diameter of AAA independently of blood pressure effects. Immunofluorescence detection showed that AS effectively reduced the levels of CD45+ cells and MAC3+ macrophages as well as MMP-2 and MMP-9. qPCR revealed that AS reduced mRNA transcription levels of MMP-2, MMP-9, the cytokine IL-1β, TNF-α, adhesion molecules ICAM-1, VCAM-1. AS decreased the levels of NF-κB signaling pathway in aorta.

CONCLUSIONS

AS can attenuate the development of AAA in mice. The possible mechanism is anti-inflammation.

Chinese herbal medicine promote tissue differentiation in colorectal cancer by activating HSD11B2

BACKGROUND

Colorectal cancer is a common malignant tumor of the digestive tract. In recent years, the incidence rate has increased year by year and is showing a younger trend. The application of Chinese herbal medicine (CHM) is one of the important methods for the treatment of colorectal cancer. CHM refers to the main therapeutic drugs based on traditional Chinese medicine (TCM), which is still valued. Many effective anticancer small-molecule compounds are derived from CHMs, and their effective anticancer ingredients and targets must be clarified and to further understand the molecular mechanisms by which CHM affects cancer.

METHODS

We analyzed the ingredients in CHM that were found to be effective against colorectal cancer and constructed an interaction network among these ingredients and the target protein. By analyzing the number of connections in the network and their type of interaction, we identified the key target protein Corticosteroid 11-beta-dehydrogenase isozyme 2, the enzyme encoded by HSD11B2. Analyses of HSD11B2 expression, survival curve, and co-expressed genes helped clarify the correlation between HSD11B2 and colorectal cancer as well as its underlying molecular mechanism.

RESULTS

We determined that the anticancer ingredients contained in Sanguisorba officinalis, Patrinia scabiosaefolia, and Smilax china had more connections to the target proteins found in colorectal cancer. In the interaction network, eight small-molecule compounds had an activating effect on HSD11B2. The expression of the HSD11B2 was markedly decreased in colorectal cancer tissues and was positively correlated with the overall survival time of patients. In addition, co-expression analyses showed a close relationship between HSD11B2 and tissue-specific genes in colorectal tissues. The expression levels of HSD11B2 in well-, moderately, and poorly differentiated tissues progressively decreased.

CONCLUSION

The HSD11B2 protein was a key CHM target for treating colorectal cancer. The key role of CHM may lie in activating HSD11B2 and further promoting tissue differentiation in colorectal cancer.

It is not just artemisinin: Artemisia sp. for treating diseases including malaria and schistosomiasis

Artemisia sp., especially A. annua and A. afra, have been used for centuries to treat many ailments. While artemisinin is the main therapeutically active component, emerging evidence demonstrates that the other phytochemicals in this genus are also therapeutically active. Those compounds include flavonoids, other terpenes, coumarins, and phenolic acids. Artemisia sp. phytochemicals also improve bioavailability of artemisinin and synergistically improve artemisinin therapeutic efficacy, especially when delivered as dried leaf Artemisia as a tea infusion or as powdered dry leaves in a capsule or compressed into a tablet. Here results from in vitro, and in vivo animal and human studies are summarized and critically discussed for mainly malaria, but also other diseases susceptible to artemisinin and Artemisia sp. including schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis.

Characterization of the hot and cold medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs by spontaneous photon emission ratio of mice

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

One important therapeutic characteristic of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) for its properly-guided clinical prescription is considering the cold and hot medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs. According to the TCM theory, the hot and cold medicinal properties are defined by the general responses of a human body to a given herbal medicine. This definition is subjective and ambiguous which attenuates the modernization of TCM. Biological spontaneous photon emission (SE) is a normal phenomenon reflecting the transition of the quantum state of molecules inside an organism. The alteration of its level can indicate the changes of many aspects of the organism including metabolism. Thus, we can exploit this feature to develop a novel and scientific approach to quantitively and objectively characterize the hot and cold medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs.

OBJECTIVE

To determine whether SE can be used to characterize the hot and cold medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs, this study took advantage of the ultra-weak luminescence detection technology to examine the effects of traditional Chinese herbs with hot or cold medicinal property to the level of SE in mice.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Mice were intragastrically administered with twenty traditional Chinese herbs harboring cold or hot property for ten consecutive days respectively. During the course of treatment, SE intensity of the abdomen and the back of each individual mouse were measured and recorded. At the end of the treatment, the total antioxidant capacity, superoxide dismutase activity, Na⁺-K⁺-ATPase activity and Ca²⁺-Mg²⁺-ATPase activity in the liver of all mice were examined.

RESULTS

Ratio between the SE intensity of the abdomen and back of mice (defined as SE ratio) was able to distinguish the cold and hot medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs. Mice treated with hot herbs and cold herbs have higher and lower SE ratios respectively compared with control mice. Furthermore, levels of selected biochemical indexes in the liver were correlated with most of the SE ratio changes induced by herbal treatment.

CONCLUSIONS

We have developed a novel and promising approach to quantitatively investigate herbal properties and we propose that SE ratio defined in this study can serve as a sensitive parameter to characterize the cold and hot medicinal properties of traditional Chinese herbs.

Simultaneous Quantification of Five Sesquiterpene Components after Ultrasound Extraction in Artemisia annua L. by an Accurate and Rapid UPLC⁻PDA Assay

Objective: To develop an accurate and rapid ultra-performance liquid chromatography (UPLC) coupled with a photodiode array (PDA) method for the simultaneous determination of artemisinin (Art), arteannuin B (Art B), arteannuin C (Art C), dihydroartemisinic acid (DHAA) and artemisinic acid (AA) in Artemisia annua L. Methodology: Chromatography separation was performed on an ACQUITY UPLC BEH C18 Column with isocratic elution; the mobile phase was 0.1% formic acid aqueous solution (A) and acetonitrile (B) (A:B = 40:60, v/v). Data were recorded at an ultraviolet (UV) wavelength of 191 nm for Art, Art C, DHAA and AA, and 206 nm for Art B. Results: The calibration curves of the five sesquiterpene components were all linear with correlation coefficients more than 0.9990. The linear ranges were 31.44–1572 μg/mL, 25.48–1274 μg/mL, 40.56–2028 μg/mL, 31.44–1572 μg/mL and 26.88–1396 μg/mL for Art, Art B, Art C, DHAA and AA, respectively. The precision ranged from 0.08% to 2.88%, the stability was from 0.96% to 1.66%, and the repeatability was all within 2.42% and had a mean extraction recovery of 96.5% to 100.6%. Conclusion: The established UPLC–PDA method would be valuable for improving the quantitative analysis of sesquiterpene components in Artemisia annua L.