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Chandrasekara U, Mancuso M, Sumner J, Edwards D, Zdenek CN, Fry BG. Sugar-coated survival: N-glycosylation as a unique bearded dragon venom resistance trait within Australian agamid lizards. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2024; 282:109929. [PMID: 38670246 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2024.109929] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/18/2024] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 04/22/2024] [Indexed: 04/28/2024]
Abstract
In the ongoing evolutionary arms race between predators and prey, adaptive innovations often trigger a reciprocal response. For instance, the emergence of α-neurotoxins in snake venom has driven prey species targeted by these snakes to evolve sophisticated defense mechanisms. This study zeroes in on the particular motifs within the orthosteric sites of post-synaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChR) that confer resistance to α-neurotoxins, often through structural alterations of nAChR. This research examined Australian agamid lizards, a primary prey group for Australian elapid snakes, which are subject to predatory selection pressures. We previously showed that Pogona vitticeps (Central bearded dragon) was resistant to α-neurotoxic snake venoms through a steric hindrance form resistance evolving within the nAChR orthosteric, specifically through the 187-189NVT motif resulting in the presence of N-glycosylation, with the branching carbohydrate chains impeding the binding by the neurotoxins. This adaptive trait is thought to be a compensatory mechanism for the lizard's limited escape capabilities. Despite the significance of this novel adaptation, the prevalence and evolutionary roots of such venom resistance in Australian agamids have not been thoroughly investigated. To fill this knowledge gap, we undertook a comprehensive sequencing analysis of the nAChR ligand-binding domain across the full taxonomical diversity of Australian agamid species. Our findings reveal that the N-glycosylation resistance mechanism is a trait unique to the Pogona genus and absent in other Australian agamids. This aligns with Pogona's distinctive morphology, which likely increases vulnerability to neurotoxic elapid snakes, thereby increasing selective pressures for resistance. In contrast, biolayer interferometry experiments with death adder (Acanthophis species) venoms did not indicate any resistance-related binding patterns in other agamids, suggesting a lack of similar resistance adaptations, consistent with these lineages either being fast-moving, covered with large defensive spines, or being arboreal. This research not only uncovers a novel α-neurotoxin resistance mechanism in Australian agamids but also highlights the complex dynamics of the predator-prey chemical arms race. It provides a deeper understanding of how evolutionary pressures shape the interactions between venomous snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uthpala Chandrasekara
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Marco Mancuso
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Joanna Sumner
- Museums Victoria Research Institute, GPO Box 666, Melbourne, VIC 3001, Australia.
| | - Dan Edwards
- Natural Sciences, Museum and Art Gallery Northern Territory, 19 Conacher St, The Gardens, Darwin, NT 0801, Australia.
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Chandrasekara U, Broussard EM, Rokyta DR, Fry BG. High-Voltage Toxin'Roll: Electrostatic Charge Repulsion as a Dynamic Venom Resistance Trait in Pythonid Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2024; 16:176. [PMID: 38668601 PMCID: PMC11053703 DOI: 10.3390/toxins16040176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/31/2024] [Indexed: 04/29/2024] Open
Abstract
The evolutionary interplay between predator and prey has significantly shaped the development of snake venom, a critical adaptation for subduing prey. This arms race has spurred the diversification of the components of venom and the corresponding emergence of resistance mechanisms in the prey and predators of venomous snakes. Our study investigates the molecular basis of venom resistance in pythons, focusing on electrostatic charge repulsion as a defense against α-neurotoxins binding to the alpha-1 subunit of the postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. Through phylogenetic and bioactivity analyses of orthosteric site sequences from various python species, we explore the prevalence and evolution of amino acid substitutions that confer resistance by electrostatic repulsion, which initially evolved in response to predatory pressure by Naja (cobra) species (which occurs across Africa and Asia). The small African species Python regius retains the two resistance-conferring lysines (positions 189 and 191) of the ancestral Python genus, conferring resistance to sympatric Naja venoms. This differed from the giant African species Python sebae, which has secondarily lost one of these lysines, potentially due to its rapid growth out of the prey size range of sympatric Naja species. In contrast, the two Asian species Python brongersmai (small) and Python bivittatus (giant) share an identical orthosteric site, which exhibits the highest degree of resistance, attributed to three lysine residues in the orthosteric sites. One of these lysines (at orthosteric position 195) evolved in the last common ancestor of these two species, which may reflect an adaptive response to increased predation pressures from the sympatric α-neurotoxic snake-eating genus Ophiophagus (King Cobras) in Asia. All these terrestrial Python species, however, were less neurotoxin-susceptible than pythons in other genera which have evolved under different predatory pressure as: the Asian species Malayopython reticulatus which is arboreal as neonates and juveniles before rapidly reaching sizes as terrestrial adults too large for sympatric Ophiophagus species to consider as prey; and the terrestrial Australian species Aspidites melanocephalus which occupies a niche, devoid of selection pressure from α-neurotoxic predatory snakes. Our findings underline the importance of positive selection in the evolution of venom resistance and suggest a complex evolutionary history involving both conserved traits and secondary evolution. This study enhances our understanding of the molecular adaptations that enable pythons to survive in environments laden with venomous threats and offers insights into the ongoing co-evolution between venomous snakes and their prey.
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Affiliation(s)
- Uthpala Chandrasekara
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Emilie M. Broussard
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (E.M.B.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Darin R. Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, 319 Stadium Drive, Tallahassee, FL 32306, USA; (E.M.B.); (D.R.R.)
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Adaptive Biotoxicology Lab, School of the Environment, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
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Tse TC, Tsai IH, Chan YY, Tsai TS. Venom Proteomics of Trimeresurus gracilis, a Taiwan-Endemic Pitviper, and Comparison of Its Venom Proteome and VEGF and CRISP Sequences with Those of the Most Related Species. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:408. [PMID: 37505677 PMCID: PMC10467061 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15070408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2023] [Revised: 06/17/2023] [Accepted: 06/20/2023] [Indexed: 07/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Trimeresurus gracilis is an endemic alpine pitviper in Taiwan with controversial phylogeny, and its venom proteome remains unknown. In this study, we conducted a proteomic analysis of T. gracilis venom using high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry and identified 155 toxin proteoforms that belong to 13 viperid venom toxin families. By searching the sequences of trypsin-digested peptides of the separated HPLC fractions against the NCBI database, T. gracilis venom was found to contain 40.3% metalloproteases (SVMPs), 15.3% serine proteases, 6.6% phospholipases A2, 5.0% L-amino acid oxidase, 4.6% Cys-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), 3.2% disintegrins, 2.9% vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), 1.9% C-type lectin-like proteins, and 20.2% of minor toxins, nontoxins, and unidentified peptides or compounds. Sixteen of these proteoforms matched the toxins whose full amino-acid sequences have been deduced from T. gracilis venom gland cDNA sequences. The hemorrhagic venom of T. gracilis appears to be especially rich in PI-class SVMPs and lacks basic phospholipase A2. We also cloned and sequenced the cDNAs encoding two CRISP and three VEGF variants from T. gracilis venom glands. Sequence alignments and comparison revealed that the PI-SVMP, kallikrein-like proteases, CRISPs, and VEGF-F of T. gracilis and Ovophis okinavensis are structurally most similar, consistent with their close phylogenetic relationship. However, the expression levels of some of their toxins were rather different, possibly due to their distinct ecological and prey conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tsz-Chun Tse
- Institute of Wildlife Conservation, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912301, Taiwan;
| | - Inn-Ho Tsai
- Institute of Biological Chemistry, Academia Sinica, Taipei 11529, Taiwan;
- Institute of Biochemical Sciences, National Taiwan University, Taipei 106319, Taiwan
| | - Yuen-Ying Chan
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912301, Taiwan;
| | - Tein-Shun Tsai
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, National Pingtung University of Science and Technology, Pingtung 912301, Taiwan;
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Heptinstall TC, Strickland JL, Rosales-Garcia RA, Rautsaw RM, Simpson CL, Nystrom GS, Ellsworth SA, Hogan MP, Borja M, Fernandes Campos P, Grazziotin FG, Rokyta DR, Junqueira-de-Azevedo ILM, Parkinson CL. Venom phenotype conservation suggests integrated specialization in a lizard-eating snake. Toxicon 2023; 229:107135. [PMID: 37146732 PMCID: PMC11000244 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/02/2023] [Revised: 04/18/2023] [Accepted: 04/24/2023] [Indexed: 05/07/2023]
Abstract
Biological specialization reduces the size of niche space while increasing efficiency in the use of available resources. Specialization often leads to phenotypic changes via natural selection aligning with niche space constraints. Commonly observed changes are in size, shape, behavior, and traits associated with feeding. One often selected trait for dietary specialization is venom, which, in snakes, often shows variation dependent on diet across and within species. The Neotropical Blunt-headed Treesnake (Imantodes cenchoa) is a highly specialized, rear-fanged, arboreal, lizard hunter that displays a long thin body, enlarged eyes, and a large Duvernoy's gland. However, toxin characterization of I. cenchoa has never been completed. Here, we use RNA-seq and mass spectrometry to assemble, annotate, and analyze the venom gland transcriptomes of four I. cenchoa from across their range. We find a lack of significant venom variation at the sequence and expression levels, suggesting venom conservation across the species. We propose this conservation provides evidence of a specialized venom repertoire, adapted to maximize efficiency of capturing and processing lizards. Importantly, this study provides the most complete venom gland transcriptomes of I. cenchoa and evidence of venom specialization in a rear-fanged snake, giving insight into selective pressures of venom across all snake species.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jason L Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Biology, University of South Alabama, Mobile, AL, 36688, USA
| | | | - Rhett M Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; School of Biological Sciences, Washington State University, Pullman, WA, 99164, USA; Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, Tampa, FL, 33620, USA
| | - Cassandra L Simpson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA
| | - Gunnar S Nystrom
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Schyler A Ellsworth
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Michael P Hogan
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | - Miguel Borja
- Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universdad Juárez del Estado de Durango, Av. Universidad s/n. Fracc. Filadelfia, C.P. 35070, Gómez Palacio, Dgo., Mexico
| | | | - Felipe G Grazziotin
- Laboratório Especial de Colecões Zoológicas, Instituto Butantan, São Paulo, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Darin R Rokyta
- Department of Biological Science, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL, 32306, USA
| | | | - Christopher L Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA; Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, 29634, USA.
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Figueroa A, Low MEY, Lim KKP. Singapore's herpetofauna: updated and annotated checklist, history, conservation, and distribution. Zootaxa 2023; 5287:1-378. [PMID: 37518684 DOI: 10.11646/zootaxa.5287.1.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/16/2023] [Indexed: 08/01/2023]
Abstract
Given Singapore's location at the confluence of important maritime trading routes, and that it was established as a British East India Company trading post in 1819, it is unsurprising that Singapore has become one of the centres of natural history collecting and research in Southeast Asia. Despite its small size, Singapore is home to a diverse herpetofauna assemblage and boasts a rich herpetological history. The first systematic studies of Singapore's herpetofauna (within the Linnaean binomial framework) date back to Stamford Raffles and the naturalists hired by him who first came to the island in 1819. Specimens that were collected during and after this time were deposited in museums worldwide. Over time, 39 species from Singapore were described as new to science. Due to the entrepôt nature of Singapore with its associated purchasing and trading of specimens (both alive and dead), poor record-keeping, and human introductions, numerous extraneous species from outside of Singapore were reported to occur on the island. Such issues have left a complicated legacy of ambiguous records and taxonomic complications concerning the identity of Singapore's species-rich herpetofauna, many of which were only resolved in the past 30-40 years. By compiling a comprehensive collection of records and publications relating to the herpetofauna of Singapore, we construct an updated and more accurate listing of the herpetofauna of Singapore. Our investigation culminated in the evaluation of 309 species, in which we compiled a final species checklist recognising 166 species (149 native and 17 non-native established species). Among the 149 native species are two caecilians, 24 frogs, one crocodilian, 13 turtles (three visitors), 34 lizards, and 75 snakes. Of the 17 non-native species are five frogs, four turtles, six lizards, and two snakes. The remaining 143 species represent species to be excluded from Singapore's herpetofauna species checklist. For each of the 309 species examined, we provide species accounts and explanatory annotations. Furthermore, we discuss Singapore's herpetofauna from a historical and conservation perspective. Immediate deforestation and nationwide urbanisation following colonisation completely eliminated many species from throughout much of the country and restricted them to small, degraded forest patches. We hope this publication highlights the importance of publishing observations and serves as a valuable resource to future researchers, naturalists, biological consultants, and policy makers in initiating studies on species ecology, distribution, status, and promoting conservation efforts to safeguard Singapore's herpetofauna.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Martyn E Y Low
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum; 2 Conservatory Drive; Singapore 117377.
| | - Kelvin K P Lim
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum; 2 Conservatory Drive; Singapore 117377.
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Dehghani R, Monzavi SM, Mehrpour O, Shirazi FM, Hassanian-Moghaddam H, Keyler DE, Wüster W, Westerström A, Warrell DA. Medically important snakes and snakebite envenoming in Iran. Toxicon 2023; 230:107149. [PMID: 37187227 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2023.107149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2023] [Revised: 05/01/2023] [Accepted: 05/02/2023] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Snakebite is a common health condition in Iran with a diverse snake fauna, especially in tropical southern and mountainous western areas of the country with plethora of snake species. The list of medically important snakes, circumstances and effects of their bite, and necessary medical care require critical appraisal and should be updated regularly. This study aims to review and map the distributions of medically important snake species of Iran, re-evaluate their taxonomy, review their venomics, describe the clinical effects of envenoming, and discuss medical management and treatment, including the use of antivenom. Nearly 350 published articles and 26 textbooks with information on venomous and mildly venomous snake species and snakebites of Iran, were reviewed, many in Persian (Farsi) language, making them relatively inaccessible to an international readership. This has resulted in a revised updated list of Iran's medically important snake species, with taxonomic revisions of some, compilation of their morphological features, remapping of their geographical distributions, and description of species-specific clinical effects of envenoming. Moreover, the antivenom manufactured in Iran is discussed, together with treatment protocols that have been developed for the hospital management of envenomed patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruhollah Dehghani
- Department of Environmental Health, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Kashan University of Medical Sciences, Kashan, Iran
| | - Seyed Mostafa Monzavi
- Medical Toxicology Center, Mashhad University of Medical Sciences, Mashhad, Iran; Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Omid Mehrpour
- Medical Toxicology and Drug Abuse Research Center, Birjand University of Medical Sciences, Birjand, Iran; Rocky Mountain Poison and Drug Center, Denver Health and Hospital Authority, Denver, CO, USA.
| | - Farshad M Shirazi
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, USA
| | - Hossein Hassanian-Moghaddam
- Social Determinants of Health Research Center, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Clinical Toxicology, Loghman Hakim Hospital, Shahid Beheshti University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | - Daniel E Keyler
- Department of Experimental & Clinical Pharmacology, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA
| | - Wolfgang Wüster
- Molecular Ecology and Evolution at Bangor, School of Natural Sciences, Bangor University, Bangor, UK
| | | | - David A Warrell
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Schaeffer R, Pascolutti VJ, Jackson TNW, Arbuckle K. Diversity Begets Diversity When Diet Drives Snake Venom Evolution, but Evenness Rather Than Richness Is What Counts. Toxins (Basel) 2023; 15:toxins15040251. [PMID: 37104189 PMCID: PMC10142186 DOI: 10.3390/toxins15040251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2023] [Revised: 03/24/2023] [Accepted: 03/27/2023] [Indexed: 04/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms are primarily used to subjugate prey, and consequently, their evolution has been shown to be predominantly driven by diet-related selection pressure. Venoms tend to be more lethal to prey than non-prey species (except in cases of toxin resistance), prey-specific toxins have been identified, and preliminary work has demonstrated an association between the diversity of diet classes and that of toxicological activities of whole venom. However, venoms are complex mixtures of many toxins, and it remains unclear how toxin diversity is driven by diet. Prey-specific toxins do not encompass the molecular diversity of venoms, and whole venom effects could be driven by one, few, or all components, so the link between diet and venom diversity remains minimally understood. Here, we collated a database of venom composition and diet records and used a combination of phylogenetic comparative methods and two quantitative diversity indices to investigate whether and how diet diversity relates to the toxin diversity of snake venoms. We reveal that venom diversity is negatively related to diet diversity using Shannon's index but positively related using Simpson's index. Since Shannon's index predominantly considers the number of prey/toxins, whereas Simpson's index more strongly reflects evenness, we provide insights into how the diet-venom diversity link is driven. Specifically, species with low diet diversity tend to have venoms dominated by a few abundant (possibly specialised) toxin families, whereas species with diverse diets tend to 'hedge their bets' by having venoms with a more even composition of different toxin classes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Romane Schaeffer
- Département Biologie and Geosciences, Faculté Sciences et Ingénierie, Université Toulouse III-Paul Sabatier, 31062 Toulouse, France
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Victoria J Pascolutti
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Biochemistry and Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, Dentistry and Health Sciences, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
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Dynamic genetic differentiation drives the widespread structural and functional convergent evolution of snake venom proteinaceous toxins. BMC Biol 2022; 20:4. [PMID: 34996434 PMCID: PMC8742412 DOI: 10.1186/s12915-021-01208-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Background The explosive radiation and diversification of the advanced snakes (superfamily Colubroidea) was associated with changes in all aspects of the shared venom system. Morphological changes included the partitioning of the mixed ancestral glands into two discrete glands devoted for production of venom or mucous respectively, as well as changes in the location, size and structural elements of the venom-delivering teeth. Evidence also exists for homology among venom gland toxins expressed across the advanced snakes. However, despite the evolutionary novelty of snake venoms, in-depth toxin molecular evolutionary history reconstructions have been mostly limited to those types present in only two front-fanged snake families, Elapidae and Viperidae. To have a broader understanding of toxins shared among extant snakes, here we first sequenced the transcriptomes of eight taxonomically diverse rear-fanged species and four key viperid species and analysed major toxin types shared across the advanced snakes. Results Transcriptomes were constructed for the following families and species: Colubridae - Helicops leopardinus, Heterodon nasicus, Rhabdophis subminiatus; Homalopsidae – Homalopsis buccata; Lamprophiidae - Malpolon monspessulanus, Psammophis schokari, Psammophis subtaeniatus, Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus; and Viperidae – Bitis atropos, Pseudocerastes urarachnoides, Tropidolaeumus subannulatus, Vipera transcaucasiana. These sequences were combined with those from available databases of other species in order to facilitate a robust reconstruction of the molecular evolutionary history of the key toxin classes present in the venom of the last common ancestor of the advanced snakes, and thus present across the full diversity of colubroid snake venoms. In addition to differential rates of evolution in toxin classes between the snake lineages, these analyses revealed multiple instances of previously unknown instances of structural and functional convergences. Structural convergences included: the evolution of new cysteines to form heteromeric complexes, such as within kunitz peptides (the beta-bungarotoxin trait evolving on at least two occasions) and within SVMP enzymes (the P-IIId trait evolving on at least three occasions); and the C-terminal tail evolving on two separate occasions within the C-type natriuretic peptides, to create structural and functional analogues of the ANP/BNP tailed condition. Also shown was that the de novo evolution of new post-translationally liberated toxin families within the natriuretic peptide gene propeptide region occurred on at least five occasions, with novel functions ranging from induction of hypotension to post-synaptic neurotoxicity. Functional convergences included the following: multiple occasions of SVMP neofunctionalised in procoagulant venoms into activators of the clotting factors prothrombin and Factor X; multiple instances in procoagulant venoms where kunitz peptides were neofunctionalised into inhibitors of the clot destroying enzyme plasmin, thereby prolonging the half-life of the clots formed by the clotting activating enzymatic toxins; and multiple occasions of kunitz peptides neofunctionalised into neurotoxins acting on presynaptic targets, including twice just within Bungarus venoms. Conclusions We found novel convergences in both structural and functional evolution of snake toxins. These results provide a detailed roadmap for future work to elucidate predator–prey evolutionary arms races, ascertain differential clinical pathologies, as well as documenting rich biodiscovery resources for lead compounds in the drug design and discovery pipeline. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12915-021-01208-9.
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Maritz B, Barends JM, Mohamed R, Maritz RA, Alexander GJ. Repeated dietary shifts in elapid snakes (Squamata: Elapidae) revealed by ancestral state reconstruction. Biol J Linn Soc Lond 2021. [DOI: 10.1093/biolinnean/blab115] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Identifying the traits of ancestral organisms can reveal patterns and drivers of organismal diversification. Unfortunately, reconstructing complex multistate traits (such as diet) remains challenging. Adopting a ‘reconstruct, then aggregate’ approach in a maximum likelihood framework, we reconstructed ancestral diets for 298 species of elapid snakes. We tested whether different prey types were correlated with one another, tested for one-way contingency between prey type pairs, and examined the relationship between snake body size and dietary composition. We demonstrate that the evolution of diet was characterized by niche conservation punctuated by repeated dietary shifts. The ancestor of elapids most likely fed on reptiles and possibly amphibians, with deviations from this ancestral diet occurring repeatedly due to shifts into marine environments and changes in body size. Moreover, we demonstrate important patterns of prey use, including one-way dependency—most obviously the inclusion of eggs being dependent on a diet that already included the producers of those eggs. Despite imperfect dietary data, our approach produced a robust overview of dietary evolution. Given the paucity of natural history information for many organisms, our approach has the potential to increase the number of lineages to which ancestral state reconstructions of multistate traits can be robustly applied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan Maritz
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, South Africa
| | - Jody M Barends
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, South Africa
| | - Riaaz Mohamed
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, South Africa
| | - Robin A Maritz
- Department of Biodiversity and Conservation Biology, University of the Western Cape, Private Bag X17, Bellville, South Africa
| | - Graham J Alexander
- School of Animal, Plant & Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, PO Wits, South Africa
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10
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Hofmann EP, Rautsaw RM, Mason AJ, Strickland JL, Parkinson CL. Duvernoy's Gland Transcriptomics of the Plains Black-Headed Snake, Tantilla nigriceps (Squamata, Colubridae): Unearthing the Venom of Small Rear-Fanged Snakes. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:toxins13050336. [PMID: 34066626 PMCID: PMC8148590 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13050336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2021] [Revised: 05/03/2021] [Accepted: 05/04/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The venoms of small rear-fanged snakes (RFS) remain largely unexplored, despite increased recognition of their importance in understanding venom evolution more broadly. Sequencing the transcriptome of venom-producing glands has greatly increased the ability of researchers to examine and characterize the toxin repertoire of small taxa with low venom yields. Here, we use RNA-seq to characterize the Duvernoy’s gland transcriptome of the Plains Black-headed Snake, Tantilla nigriceps, a small, semi-fossorial colubrid that feeds on a variety of potentially dangerous arthropods including centipedes and spiders. We generated transcriptomes of six individuals from three localities in order to both characterize the toxin expression of this species for the first time, and to look for initial evidence of venom variation in the species. Three toxin families—three-finger neurotoxins (3FTxs), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISPs), and snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPIIIs)—dominated the transcriptome of T. nigriceps; 3FTx themselves were the dominant toxin family in most individuals, accounting for as much as 86.4% of an individual’s toxin expression. Variation in toxin expression between individuals was also noted, with two specimens exhibiting higher relative expression of c-type lectins than any other sample (8.7–11.9% compared to <1%), and another expressed CRISPs higher than any other toxin. This study provides the first Duvernoy’s gland transcriptomes of any species of Tantilla, and one of the few transcriptomic studies of RFS not predicated on a single individual. This initial characterization demonstrates the need for further study of toxin expression variation in this species, as well as the need for further exploration of small RFS venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Erich P. Hofmann
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (E.P.H.); (R.M.R.); (A.J.M.); (J.L.S.)
| | - Rhett M. Rautsaw
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (E.P.H.); (R.M.R.); (A.J.M.); (J.L.S.)
| | - Andrew J. Mason
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (E.P.H.); (R.M.R.); (A.J.M.); (J.L.S.)
| | - Jason L. Strickland
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (E.P.H.); (R.M.R.); (A.J.M.); (J.L.S.)
| | - Christopher L. Parkinson
- Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA; (E.P.H.); (R.M.R.); (A.J.M.); (J.L.S.)
- Department of Forestry and Environmental Conservation, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634, USA
- Correspondence:
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Snake Bite Management: A Scoping Review of the Literature. PLASTIC AND RECONSTRUCTIVE SURGERY-GLOBAL OPEN 2021; 9:e3506. [PMID: 33936914 PMCID: PMC8084039 DOI: 10.1097/gox.0000000000003506] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/06/2020] [Accepted: 01/21/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Abstract
Background: Around the world, snake bite envenomation remains an underreported human health hazard. Envenomation can cause local and systemic complications, especially when there is a lack of antivenom availability. Although there are established guidelines regarding snake bite management acute care, there is a paucity of data regarding surgical intervention and the plastic surgeon’s role treating this unique patient population. Methods: A review was conducted identifying relevant published articles involving snake bite management and treatment in PubMed and EMBASE. Results: One hundred ten articles were identified and 77 met inclusion criteria. Snake bite envenomation can result in complications that are dependent upon a variety of variables. The literature has shown the best field treatment to be timely transportation to the nearest medical facility, along with antivenom administration. The cytotoxic, hemotoxic, and neurotoxic effects of venom can cause a variety of local soft tissue and systemic complications. Surgical interventions such as fasciotomies, wound debridements, skin grafts, and tissue flaps may be necessary in these patients to optimize functional and aesthetic outcomes. Disparities in access to care in resource limited settings are discussed. Conclusions: Global health disparities and insufficient antivenom distribution create an inequality of care in snake bite patients. Plastic surgeons have an important role in managing acute and chronic complications of snake bite envenomations that can lead to improved patient outcomes.
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Dashevsky D, Rokyta D, Frank N, Nouwens A, Fry BG. Electric Blue: Molecular Evolution of Three-Finger Toxins in the Long-Glanded Coral Snake Species Calliophis bivirgatus. Toxins (Basel) 2021; 13:124. [PMID: 33567660 PMCID: PMC7915963 DOI: 10.3390/toxins13020124] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2020] [Revised: 02/04/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
The genus Calliophis is the most basal branch of the family Elapidae and several species in it have developed highly elongated venom glands. Recent research has shown that C. bivirgatus has evolved a seemingly unique toxin (calliotoxin) that produces spastic paralysis in their prey by acting on the voltage-gated sodium (NaV) channels. We assembled a transcriptome from C. bivirgatus to investigate the molecular characteristics of these toxins and the venom as a whole. We find strong confirmation that this genus produces the classic elapid eight-cysteine three-finger toxins, that δδ-elapitoxins (toxins that resemble calliotoxin) are responsible for a substantial portion of the venom composition, and that these toxins form a distinct clade within a larger, more diverse clade of C. bivirgatus three-finger toxins. This broader clade of C. bivirgatus toxins also contains the previously named maticotoxins and is somewhat closely related to cytotoxins from other elapids. However, the toxins from this clade that have been characterized are not themselves cytotoxic. No other toxins show clear relationships to toxins of known function from other species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
- Australian National Insect Collection, Commonwealth Science and Industry Research Organization, Canberra, ACT 2601, Australia
| | - Darin Rokyta
- Department of Biological Sciences, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL 24105, USA;
| | - Nathaniel Frank
- MToxins Venom Lab, 717 Oregon Street, Oshkosh, WI 54902, USA;
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
| | - Bryan G. Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia;
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Assessing the Binding of Venoms from Aquatic Elapids to the Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Orthosteric Site of Different Prey Models. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21197377. [PMID: 33036249 PMCID: PMC7583753 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21197377] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2020] [Revised: 09/25/2020] [Accepted: 10/02/2020] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The evolution of an aquatic lifestyle from land dwelling venomous elapids is a radical ecological modification, bringing about many evolutionary changes from morphology to diet. Diet is an important ecological facet which can play a key role in regulating functional traits such as venom composition and prey-specific targeting of venom. In addition to predating upon novel prey (e.g., fish, fish eggs and invertebrates), the venoms of aquatic elapids also face the challenge of increased prey-escape potential in the aquatic environment. Thus, despite the independent radiation into an aquatic niche on four separate occasions, the venoms of aquatic elapids are evolving under convergent selection pressures. Utilising a biolayer interferometry binding assay, this study set out to elucidate whether crude venoms from representative aquatic elapids were target-specific to the orthosteric site of postsynaptic nicotinic acetylcholine receptor mimotopes of fish compared to other terrestrial prey types. Representatives of the four aquatic lineages were: aquatic coral snakes representative was Micrurus surinamensis;, sea kraits representative was Laticauda colubrina; sea snakes representatives were two Aipysurus spp. and eight Hydrophis spp; and water cobras representative was Naja annulata. No prey-specific differences in crude venom binding were observed from any species tested, except for Aipysurus laevis, which showed slight evidence of prey-potency differences. For Hydrophis caerulescens, H. peronii, H. schistosus and M. surinamensis, there was a lack of binding to the orthosteric site of any target lineage. Subsequent testing on the in vitro chick-biventer cervicis muscle preparation suggested that, while the venoms of these species bound postsynaptically, they bound to allosteric sites rather than orthosteric. Allosteric binding is potentially a weaker but faster-acting form of neurotoxicity and we hypothesise that the switch to allosteric binding is likely due to selection pressures related to prey-escape potential. This research has potentially opened up the possibility of a new functional class of toxins which have never been assessed previously while shedding light on the selection pressures shaping venom evolution.
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Widespread Evolution of Molecular Resistance to Snake Venom α-Neurotoxins in Vertebrates. Toxins (Basel) 2020; 12:toxins12100638. [PMID: 33023159 PMCID: PMC7601176 DOI: 10.3390/toxins12100638] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Revised: 09/19/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Venomous snakes are important subjects of study in evolution, ecology, and biomedicine. Many venomous snakes have alpha-neurotoxins (α-neurotoxins) in their venom. These toxins bind the alpha-1 nicotinic acetylcholine receptor (nAChR) at the neuromuscular junction, causing paralysis and asphyxia. Several venomous snakes and their predators have evolved resistance to α-neurotoxins. The resistance is conferred by steric hindrance from N-glycosylated asparagines at amino acids 187 or 189, by an arginine at position 187 that has been hypothesized to either electrostatically repulse positively charged neurotoxins or sterically interfere with α-neurotoxin binding, or proline replacements at positions 194 or 197 of the nAChR ligand-binding domain to inhibit α-neurotoxin binding through structural changes in the receptor. Here, we analyzed this domain in 148 vertebrate species, and assessed its amino acid sequences for resistance-associated mutations. Of these sequences, 89 were sequenced de novo. We find widespread convergent evolution of the N-glycosylation form of resistance in several taxa including venomous snakes and their lizard prey, but not in the snake-eating birds studied. We also document new lineages with the arginine form of inhibition. Using an in vivo assay in four species, we provide further evidence that N-glycosylation mutations reduce the toxicity of cobra venom. The nAChR is of crucial importance for normal neuromuscular function and is highly conserved throughout the vertebrates as a result. Our research shows that the evolution of α-neurotoxins in snakes may well have prompted arms races and mutations to this ancient receptor across a wide range of sympatric vertebrates. These findings underscore the inter-connectedness of the biosphere and the ripple effects that one adaption can have across global ecosystems.
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15
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Babenko VV, Ziganshin RH, Weise C, Dyachenko I, Shaykhutdinova E, Murashev AN, Zhmak M, Starkov V, Hoang AN, Tsetlin V, Utkin Y. Novel Bradykinin-Potentiating Peptides and Three-Finger Toxins from Viper Venom: Combined NGS Venom Gland Transcriptomics and Quantitative Venom Proteomics of the Azemiops feae Viper. Biomedicines 2020; 8:biomedicines8080249. [PMID: 32731454 PMCID: PMC7460416 DOI: 10.3390/biomedicines8080249] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/29/2020] [Revised: 07/24/2020] [Accepted: 07/24/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Feae's viper Azemipos feae belongs to the Azemiopinae subfamily of the Viperidae family. The effects of Viperidae venoms are mostly coagulopathic with limited neurotoxicity manifested by phospholipases A2. From A. feae venom, we have earlier isolated azemiopsin, a novel neurotoxin inhibiting the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor. To characterize other A. feae toxins, we applied label-free quantitative proteomics, which revealed 120 unique proteins, the most abundant being serine proteinases and phospholipases A2. In total, toxins representing 14 families were identified, among which bradykinin-potentiating peptides with unique amino acid sequences possessed biological activity in vivo. The proteomic analysis revealed also basal (commonly known as non-conventional) three-finger toxins belonging to the group of those possessing neurotoxic activity. This is the first indication of the presence of three-finger neurotoxins in viper venom. In parallel, the transcriptomic analysis of venom gland performed by Illumina next-generation sequencing further revealed 206 putative venom transcripts. Together, the study unveiled the venom proteome and venom gland transciptome of A. feae, which in general resemble those of other snakes from the Viperidae family. However, new toxins not found earlier in viper venom and including three-finger toxins and unusual bradykinin-potentiating peptides were discovered.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladislav V. Babenko
- Federal Research and Clinical Centre of Physical-Chemical Medicine of Federal Medical Biological Agency, 119435 Moscow, Russia;
| | - Rustam H. Ziganshin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (R.H.Z.); (M.Z.); (V.S.); (V.T.)
| | - Christoph Weise
- Institute of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Freie Universität Berlin, 14195 Berlin, Germany;
| | - Igor Dyachenko
- Branch of the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, 142290 Moscow Region, Russia; (I.D.); (E.S.); (A.N.M.)
| | - Elvira Shaykhutdinova
- Branch of the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, 142290 Moscow Region, Russia; (I.D.); (E.S.); (A.N.M.)
| | - Arkady N. Murashev
- Branch of the Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry, Russian Academy of Sciences, Pushchino, 142290 Moscow Region, Russia; (I.D.); (E.S.); (A.N.M.)
| | - Maxim Zhmak
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (R.H.Z.); (M.Z.); (V.S.); (V.T.)
| | - Vladislav Starkov
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (R.H.Z.); (M.Z.); (V.S.); (V.T.)
| | - Anh Ngoc Hoang
- Institute of Applied Materials Science, Vietnam Academy of Science and Technology, Ho Chi Minh City 700000, Vietnam;
| | - Victor Tsetlin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (R.H.Z.); (M.Z.); (V.S.); (V.T.)
| | - Yuri Utkin
- Shemyakin-Ovchinnikov Institute of Bioorganic Chemistry RAS, 117997 Moscow, Russia; (R.H.Z.); (M.Z.); (V.S.); (V.T.)
- Correspondence: or ; Tel.: +7-495-336-6522
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16
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Harris RJ, Zdenek CN, Debono J, Harrich D, Fry BG. Evolutionary Interpretations of Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptor Targeting Venom Effects by a Clade of Asian Viperidae Snakes. Neurotox Res 2020; 38:312-318. [PMID: 32394055 DOI: 10.1007/s12640-020-00211-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2020] [Revised: 03/29/2020] [Accepted: 04/17/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Ecological variability among closely related species provides an opportunity for evolutionary comparative studies. Therefore, to investigate the origin and evolution of neurotoxicity in Asian viperid snakes, we tested the venoms of Azemiops feae, Calloselasma rhodostoma, Deinagkistrodon acutus, Tropidolaeums subannulatus, and T. wagleri for their relative specificity and potency upon the amphibian, lizard, bird, rodent, and human α-1 (neuromuscular) nicotinic acetylcholine receptors. We utilised a biolayer interferometry assay to test the binding affinity of these pit viper venoms to orthosteric mimotopes of nicotinic acetylcholine receptors binding region from a diversity of potential prey types. The Tropidolaemus venoms were much more potent than the other species tested, which is consistent with the greater prey escape potential in arboreal niches. Intriguingly, the venom of C. rhodostoma showed neurotoxic binding to the α-1 mimotopes, a feature not known previously for this species. The lack of prior knowledge of neurotoxicity in this species is consistent with our results due to the bias in rodent studies and human bite reports, whilst this venom had a greater binding affinity toward amphibian and diapsid α-1 targets. The other large terrestrial species, D. acutus, did not display any meaningful levels of neurotoxicity. These results demonstrate that whilst small peptide neurotoxins are a basal trait of these snakes, it has been independently amplified on two separate occasions, once in Azemiops and again in Tropidolaemus, and with Calloselasma representing a third possible amplification of this trait. These results also point to broader sources of novel neuroactive peptides with the potential for use as lead compounds in drug design and discovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard J Harris
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Christina N Zdenek
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia
| | - David Harrich
- QIMR Berghofer, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, QLD, 4029, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, University of Queensland, School of Biological Sciences, Brisbane, Queensland, 4072, Australia.
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17
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Ayvazyan NM, O'Leary VB, Dolly JO, Ovsepian SV. Neurobiology and therapeutic utility of neurotoxins targeting postsynaptic mechanisms of neuromuscular transmission. Drug Discov Today 2019; 24:1968-1984. [PMID: 31247153 DOI: 10.1016/j.drudis.2019.06.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/09/2019] [Revised: 05/15/2019] [Accepted: 06/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The neuromuscular junction (NMJ) is the principal site for the translation of motor neurochemical signals to muscle activity. Therefore, the release and sensing machinery of acetylcholine (ACh) along with muscle contraction are two of the main targets of natural toxins and pathogens, causing paralysis. Given pharmacology and medical advances, the active ingredients of toxins that target postsynaptic mechanisms have become of major interest, showing promise as drug leads. Herein, we review key facets of prevalent toxins modulating the mechanisms of ACh sensing and generation of the postsynaptic response, with muscle contraction. We consider the correlation between their outstanding selectivity and potency plus effects on motor function, and discuss emerging data advocating their usage for the development of therapies alleviating neuromuscular dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naira M Ayvazyan
- Orbeli Institute of Physiology, National Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Armenia, Yerevan, Armenia.
| | - Valerie B O'Leary
- Department of Medical Genetics, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruská 87, 100 00, Praha 10, Czech Republic
| | - J Oliver Dolly
- International Centre for Neurotherapeutics, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Saak V Ovsepian
- International Centre for Neurotherapeutics, Dublin City University, Dublin, Ireland; The National Institute of Mental Health, Topolová 748, Klecany, Czech Republic; Department of Psychiatry and Medical Psychology, Third Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Ruská 87, 100 00, Praha 10, Czech Republic.
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18
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Venom Proteome of Spine-Bellied Sea Snake ( Hydrophis curtus) from Penang, Malaysia: Toxicity Correlation, Immunoprofiling and Cross-Neutralization by Sea Snake Antivenom. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 11:toxins11010003. [PMID: 30583590 PMCID: PMC6356285 DOI: 10.3390/toxins11010003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/19/2018] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
The venom proteome of Hydrophis curtus (synonym: Lapemis hardwickii) from Penang, Malaysia was investigated with nano-electrospray ionization-liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-LCMS/MS) of the reverse-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) venom fractions. Thirty distinct protein forms were identified as toxins from ten families. The three major protein families were phospholipase A2 (PLA2, 62.0% of total venom proteins), three-finger toxin (3FTX, 26.33%) and cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRiSP, 9.00%). PLA2 comprises diverse homologues (11 forms), predominantly the acidic subtypes (48.26%). 3FTX composed of one short alpha-neurotoxin (SNTX, 22.89%) and four long alpha-neurotoxins (LNTX, 3.44%). Both SNTX and LNTX were lethal in mice (intravenous LD50 = 0.10 and 0.24 μg/g, respectively) but the PLA2 were non-lethal (LD50 >1 μg/g). The more abundant and toxic SNTX appeared to be the main driver of venom lethality (holovenom LD50 = 0.20 μg/g). The heterologous Sea Snake Antivenom (SSAV, Australia) effectively cross-neutralized the venom (normalized potency = 9.35 mg venom neutralized per g antivenom) and the two neurotoxins in vivo, with the LNTX being neutralized more effectively (normalized potency = 3.5 mg toxin/g antivenom) than SNTX (normalized potency = 1.57 mg/g). SSAV immunorecognition was strong toward PLA2 but moderate-to-weak toward the alpha-neurotoxins, indicating that neutralization of the alpha-neurotoxins should be further improved.
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19
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Durban J, Sasa M, Calvete JJ. Venom gland transcriptomics and microRNA profiling of juvenile and adult yellow-bellied sea snake, Hydrophis platurus, from Playa del Coco (Guanacaste, Costa Rica). Toxicon 2018; 153:96-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2018.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2018] [Revised: 08/13/2018] [Accepted: 08/29/2018] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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20
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Three-Finger Toxin Diversification in the Venoms of Cat-Eye Snakes (Colubridae: Boiga). J Mol Evol 2018; 86:531-545. [PMID: 30206667 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-018-9864-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2018] [Accepted: 09/06/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The Asian genus Boiga (Colubridae) is among the better studied non-front-fanged snake lineages, because their bites have minor, but noticeable, effects on humans. Furthermore, B. irregularis has gained worldwide notoriety for successfully invading Guam and other nearby islands with drastic impacts on the local bird populations. One of the factors thought to allow B. irregularis to become such a noxious pest is irditoxin, a dimeric neurotoxin composed of two three-finger toxins (3FTx) joined by a covalent bond between two newly evolved cysteines. Irditoxin is highly toxic to diapsid (birds and reptiles) prey, but roughly 1000 × less potent to synapsids (mammals). Venom plays an important role in the ecology of all species of Boiga, but it remains unknown if any species besides B. irregularis produce irditoxin-like dimeric toxins. In this study, we use transcriptomic analyses of venom glands from five species [B. cynodon, B. dendrophila dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), B. nigriceps, B. trigonata] and proteomic analyses of B. d. dendrophila and a representative of the sister genus Toxicodryas blandingii to investigate the evolutionary history of 3FTx within Boiga and its close relative. We found that 92.5% of Boiga 3FTx belong to a single clade which we refer to as denmotoxin-like because of the close relation between these toxins and the monomeric denmotoxin according to phylogenetic, sequence clustering, and protein similarity network analyses. We show for the first time that species beyond B. irregularis secrete 3FTx with additional cysteines in the same position as both the A and B subunits of irditoxin. Transcripts with the characteristic mutations are found in B. d. dendrophila, B. d. gemmicincta, B. irregularis (Brisbane population), B. irregularis (Sulawesi population), and B. nigriceps. These results are confirmed by proteomic analyses that show direct evidence of dimerization within the venom of B. d. dendrophila, but not T. blandingii. Our results also suggest the possibility of novel dimeric toxins in other genera such as Telescopus and Trimorphodon. All together, this suggests that the origin of these peculiar 3FTx is far earlier than was appreciated and their evolutionary history has been complex.
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21
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Modahl CM, Mrinalini, Frietze S, Mackessy SP. Adaptive evolution of distinct prey-specific toxin genes in rear-fanged snake venom. Proc Biol Sci 2018; 285:rspb.2018.1003. [PMID: 30068680 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2018.1003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Venom proteins evolve rapidly, and as a trophic adaptation are excellent models for predator-prey evolutionary studies. The key to a deeper understanding of venom evolution is an integrated approach, combining prey assays with analysis of venom gene expression and venom phenotype. Here, we use such an approach to study venom evolution in the Amazon puffing snake, Spilotes sulphureus, a generalist feeder. We identify two novel three-finger toxins: sulditoxin and sulmotoxin 1. These new toxins are not only two of the most abundant venom proteins, but are also functionally intriguing, displaying distinct prey-specific toxicities. Sulditoxin is highly toxic towards lizard prey, but is non-toxic towards mammalian prey, even at greater than 22-fold higher dosage. By contrast, sulmotoxin 1 exhibits the reverse trend. Furthermore, evolutionary analysis and structural modelling show highest sequence variability in the central loop of these proteins, probably driving taxon-specific toxicity. This is, to our knowledge, the first case in which a bimodal and contrasting pattern of toxicity has been shown for proteins in the venom of a single snake in relation to diet. Our study is an example of how toxin gene neofunctionalization can result in a venom system dominated by one protein superfamily and still exhibit flexibility in prey capture efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cassandra M Modahl
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Mrinalini
- Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543, Republic of Singapore
| | - Seth Frietze
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th Street, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
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22
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Fry BG. Snakebite: When the Human Touch Becomes a Bad Touch. Toxins (Basel) 2018; 10:E170. [PMID: 29690533 PMCID: PMC5923336 DOI: 10.3390/toxins10040170] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2018] [Revised: 04/19/2018] [Accepted: 04/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Many issues and complications in treating snakebite are a result of poor human social, economic and clinical intervention and management. As such, there is scope for significant improvements for reducing incidence and increasing patient outcomes. Snakes do not target humans as prey, but as our dwellings and farms expand ever farther and climate change increases snake activity periods, accidental encounters with snakes seeking water and prey increase drastically. Despite its long history, the snakebite crisis is neglected, ignored, underestimated and fundamentally misunderstood. Tens of thousands of lives are lost to snakebites each year and hundreds of thousands of people will survive with some form of permanent damage and reduced work capacity. These numbers are well recognized as being gross underestimations due to poor to non-existent record keeping in some of the most affected areas. These underestimations complicate achieving the proper recognition of snakebite’s socioeconomic impact and thus securing foreign aid to help alleviate this global crisis. Antivenoms are expensive and hospitals are few and far between, leaving people to seek help from traditional healers or use other forms of ineffective treatment. In some cases, cheaper, inappropriately manufactured antivenom from other regions is used despite no evidence for their efficacy, with often robust data demonstrating they are woefully ineffective in neutralizing many venoms for which they are marketed for. Inappropriate first-aid and treatments include cutting the wound, tourniquets, electrical shock, immersion in ice water, and use of ineffective herbal remedies by traditional healers. Even in the developed world, there are fundamental controversies including fasciotomy, pressure bandages, antivenom dosage, premedication such as adrenalin, and lack of antivenom for exotic snakebites in the pet trade. This review explores the myriad of human-origin factors that influence the trajectory of global snakebite causes and treatment failures and illustrate that snakebite is as much a sociological and economic problem as it is a medical one. Reducing the incidence and frequency of such controllable factors are therefore realistic targets to help alleviate the global snakebite burden as incremental improvements across several areas will have a strong cumulative effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Goldenberg J, Cipriani V, Jackson TNW, Arbuckle K, Debono J, Dashevsky D, Panagides N, Ikonomopoulou MP, Koludarov I, Li B, Santana RC, Nouwens A, Jones A, Hay C, Dunstan N, Allen L, Bush B, Miles JJ, Ge L, Kwok HF, Fry BG. Proteomic and functional variation within black snake venoms (Elapidae: Pseudechis). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:53-61. [PMID: 29353015 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2018.01.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2017] [Revised: 01/03/2018] [Accepted: 01/10/2018] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Pseudechis (black snakes) is an Australasian elapid snake genus that inhabits much of mainland Australia, with two representatives confined to Papua New Guinea. The present study is the first to analyse the venom of all 9 described Pseudechis species (plus one undescribed species) to investigate the evolution of venom composition and functional activity. Proteomic results demonstrated that the typical Pseudechis venom profile is dominated by phospholipase A2 toxins. Strong cytotoxicity was the dominant function for most species. P. porphyriacus, the most basal member of the genus, also exhibited the most divergent venom composition, being the only species with appreciable amounts of procoagulant toxins. The relatively high presence of factor Xa recovered in P. porphyriacus venom may be related to a predominantly amphibian diet. Results of this study provide important insights to guide future ecological and toxinological investigations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Goldenberg
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Evolution and Optics of Nanostructures Group, Department of Biology, University of Ghent, Ledeganckstraat 35, Ghent 9000, Belgium
| | - Vittoria Cipriani
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, VIC 3000, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2, 8PP, UK
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Nadya Panagides
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Maria P Ikonomopoulou
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia; School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia; Madrid Institute for Advanced Studies (IMDEA) in Food, CEI UAM+CSIC, Madrid 28049, Spain
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Bin Li
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China
| | - Renan Castro Santana
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Alun Jones
- Institute for Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, Slt Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | | | - Luke Allen
- Venom Supplies, Tanunda, SA 5352, Australia
| | - Brian Bush
- Snakes Harmful & Harmless, 9 Birch Place, Stoneville, WA 6081, Australia
| | - John J Miles
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia; Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia
| | - Lilin Ge
- School of Pharmacy, Nanjing University of Chinese Medicine, Qixia District, Nanjing, China
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau, China.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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24
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Dobson J, Yang DC, Op den Brouw B, Cochran C, Huynh T, Kurrupu S, Sánchez EE, Massey DJ, Baumann K, Jackson TNW, Nouwens A, Josh P, Neri-Castro E, Alagón A, Hodgson WC, Fry BG. Rattling the border wall: Pathophysiological implications of functional and proteomic venom variation between Mexican and US subspecies of the desert rattlesnake Crotalus scutulatus. Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2018; 205:62-69. [PMID: 29074260 PMCID: PMC5825281 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2017] [Revised: 10/19/2017] [Accepted: 10/19/2017] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
While some US populations of the Mohave rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus scutulatus) are infamous for being potently neurotoxic, the Mexican subspecies C. s. salvini (Huamantlan rattlesnake) has been largely unstudied beyond crude lethality testing upon mice. In this study we show that at least some populations of this snake are as potently neurotoxic as its northern cousin. Testing of the Mexican antivenom Antivipmyn showed a complete lack of neutralisation for the neurotoxic effects of C. s. salvini venom, while the neurotoxic effects of the US subspecies C. s. scutulatus were time-delayed but ultimately not eliminated. These results document unrecognised potent neurological effects of a Mexican snake and highlight the medical importance of this subspecies, a finding augmented by the ineffectiveness of the Antivipmyn antivenom. These results also influence our understanding of the venom evolution of Crotalus scutulatus, suggesting that neurotoxicity is the ancestral feature of this species, with the US populations which lack neurotoxicity being derived states.
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Affiliation(s)
- James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bianca Op den Brouw
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Tam Huynh
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Sanjaya Kurrupu
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Elda E Sánchez
- National Natural Toxins Research Center (NNTRC), Department of Chemistry, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, MSC 224, 975 West Avenue B, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA
| | - Daniel J Massey
- Arizona Poison and Drug Information Center, 1295 N Martin Room B308, Tucson, AZ 85721, USA; Banner University Medical Center, 1501 N. Campbell Ave, Tucson, AZ 85745, USA
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3000, Australia
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Peter Josh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Edgar Neri-Castro
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Alejandro Alagón
- Instituto de Biotecnología, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Av. Universidad # 2001, Colonia Chamilpa, Cuernavaca, Morelos 62210, Mexico
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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25
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Neale V, Sotillo J, Seymour JE, Wilson D. The Venom of the Spine-Bellied Sea Snake (Hydrophis curtus): Proteome, Toxin Diversity and Intraspecific Variation. Int J Mol Sci 2017; 18:ijms18122695. [PMID: 29231898 PMCID: PMC5751296 DOI: 10.3390/ijms18122695] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2017] [Revised: 11/26/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The spine-bellied sea snake (Hydrophis curtus) is known to cause human deaths, yet its venom composition has not yet been proteomically characterised. An in-depth proteomic analysis was performed on H. curtus venom from two different seasons, January and June, corresponding to adults and subadults, respectively. Venoms from adult and subadult H. curtus individuals were compared using reversed-phase high-performance liquid chromatography (RP-HPLC), matrix-assisted laser desorption ionisation-time of flight (MALDI-TOF) mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography electrospray ionisation mass spectrometry (LC-ESI-MS) to detect intraspecific variation, and the molecular weight data obtained with ESI-MS were used to assess toxin diversity. RP-HPLC and LC-ESI-MS/MS were used to characterise the venom proteome and estimate the relative abundances of protein families present. The most abundant protein family in January and June venoms is phospholipase A2 (PLA2: January 66.7%; June 54.5%), followed by three-finger toxins (3FTx: January 30.4%; June 40.4%) and a minor component of cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP: January 2.5%; June 5%). Trace amounts of snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMP), C-type lectins and housekeeping and regulatory proteins were also found. Although the complexity of the venom is low by number of families present, each family contained a more diverse set of isoforms than previously reported, a finding that may have implications for the development of next-generation sea snake antivenoms. Intraspecific variability was shown to be minor with one obvious exception of a 14,157-Da protein that was present in some January (adult) venoms, but not at all in June (subadult) venoms. There is also a greater abundance of short-chain neurotoxins in June (subadult) venom compared with January (adult) venom. These differences potentially indicate the presence of seasonal, ontogenetic or sexual variation in H. curtus venom.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vanessa Neale
- College of Public Health, Medical and Veterinary Sciences, James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Cairns 4878, Australia.
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM) and Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics (CBMDT), James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Cairns 4878, Australia.
| | - Javier Sotillo
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM) and Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics (CBMDT), James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Cairns 4878, Australia.
| | - Jamie E Seymour
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM) and Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics (CBMDT), James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Cairns 4878, Australia.
| | - David Wilson
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine (AITHM) and Centre for Biodiscovery and Molecular Development of Therapeutics (CBMDT), James Cook University, McGregor Road, Smithfield, Cairns 4878, Australia.
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26
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Cipriani V, Debono J, Goldenberg J, Jackson TNW, Arbuckle K, Dobson J, Koludarov I, Li B, Hay C, Dunstan N, Allen L, Hendrikx I, Kwok HF, Fry BG. Correlation between ontogenetic dietary shifts and venom variation in Australian brown snakes (Pseudonaja). Comp Biochem Physiol C Toxicol Pharmacol 2017; 197:53-60. [PMID: 28457945 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbpc.2017.04.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/25/2017] [Revised: 04/19/2017] [Accepted: 04/25/2017] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Venom is a key evolutionary trait, as evidenced by its widespread convergent evolution across the animal kingdom. In an escalating prey-predator arms race, venoms evolve rapidly to guarantee predatory or defensive success. Variation in venom composition is ubiquitous among snakes. Here, we tested variation in venom activity on substrates relevant to blood coagulation among Pseudonaja (brown snake) species, Australian elapids responsible for the majority of medically important human envenomations in Australia. A functional approach was employed to elucidate interspecific variation in venom activity in all nine currently recognised species of Pseudonaja. Fluorometric enzymatic activity assays were performed to test variation in whole venom procoagulant activity among species. Analyses confirmed the previously documented ontogenetic shift from non-coagulopathic venom in juveniles to coagulopathic venom as adults, except for the case of P. modesta, which retains non-coagulopathic venom as an adult. These shifts in venom activity correlate with documented ontogenetic shifts in diet among brown snakes from specialisation on reptilian prey as juveniles (and throughout the life cycle of P. modesta), to a more generalised diet in adults that includes mammals. The results of this study bring to light findings relevant to both clinical and evolutionary toxinology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vittoria Cipriani
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Jonathan Goldenberg
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia; Australian Venom Research Unit, Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2, 8PP, UK
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Bin Li
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Chris Hay
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Nathan Dunstan
- Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia
| | - Luke Allen
- Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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27
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Debono J, Dobson J, Casewell NR, Romilio A, Li B, Kurniawan N, Mardon K, Weisbecker V, Nouwens A, Kwok HF, Fry BG. Coagulating Colubrids: Evolutionary, Pathophysiological and Biodiscovery Implications of Venom Variations between Boomslang (Dispholidus typus) and Twig Snake (Thelotornis mossambicanus). Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E171. [PMID: 28534833 PMCID: PMC5450719 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9050171] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2017] [Revised: 05/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Venoms can deleteriously affect any physiological system reachable by the bloodstream, including directly interfering with the coagulation cascade. Such coagulopathic toxins may be anticoagulants or procoagulants. Snake venoms are unique in their use of procoagulant toxins for predatory purposes. The boomslang (Dispholidus typus) and the twig snakes (Thelotornis species) are iconic African snakes belonging to the family Colubridae. Both species produce strikingly similar lethal procoagulant pathologies. Despite these similarities, antivenom is only produced for treating bites by D. typus, and the mechanisms of action of both venoms have been understudied. In this study, we investigated the venom of D. typus and T. mossambicanus utilising a range of proteomic and bioactivity approaches, including determining the procoagulant properties of both venoms in relation to the human coagulation pathways. In doing so, we developed a novel procoagulant assay, utilising a Stago STA-R Max analyser, to accurately detect real time clotting in plasma at varying concentrations of venom. This approach was used to assess the clotting capabilities of the two venoms both with and without calcium and phospholipid co-factors. We found that T. mossambicanus produced a significantly stronger coagulation response compared to D. typus. Functional enzyme assays showed that T. mossambicanus also exhibited a higher metalloprotease and phospholipase activity but had a much lower serine protease activity relative to D. typus venom. The neutralising capability of the available boomslang antivenom was also investigated on both species, with it being 11.3 times more effective upon D. typus venom than T. mossambicanus. In addition to being a faster clotting venom, T. mossambicanus was revealed to be a much more complex venom composition than D. typus. This is consistent with patterns seen for other snakes with venom complexity linked to dietary complexity. Consistent with the external morphological differences in head shape between the two species, CT and MRI analyses revealed significant internal structural differences in skull architecture and venom gland anatomy. This study increases our understanding of not only the biodiscovery potential of these medically important species but also increases our knowledge of the pathological relationship between venom and the human coagulation cascade.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Pembroke Place, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK.
| | - Anthony Romilio
- Vertebrate Palaeontology and Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Bin Li
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau SAR.
| | - Nyoman Kurniawan
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Karine Mardon
- Centre for Advanced Imaging, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Vera Weisbecker
- Vertebrate Palaeontology and Biomechanics Laboratory, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Hang Fai Kwok
- Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Macau, Avenida da Universidade, Taipa, Macau SAR.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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28
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29
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Panagides N, Jackson TNW, Ikonomopoulou MP, Arbuckle K, Pretzler R, Yang DC, Ali SA, Koludarov I, Dobson J, Sanker B, Asselin A, Santana RC, Hendrikx I, van der Ploeg H, Tai-A-Pin J, van den Bergh R, Kerkkamp HMI, Vonk FJ, Naude A, Strydom MA, Jacobsz L, Dunstan N, Jaeger M, Hodgson WC, Miles J, Fry BG. How the Cobra Got Its Flesh-Eating Venom: Cytotoxicity as a Defensive Innovation and Its Co-Evolution with Hooding, Aposematic Marking, and Spitting. Toxins (Basel) 2017; 9:E103. [PMID: 28335411 PMCID: PMC5371858 DOI: 10.3390/toxins9030103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/23/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2017] [Accepted: 03/05/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The cytotoxicity of the venom of 25 species of Old World elapid snake was tested and compared with the morphological and behavioural adaptations of hooding and spitting. We determined that, contrary to previous assumptions, the venoms of spitting species are not consistently more cytotoxic than those of closely related non-spitting species. While this correlation between spitting and non-spitting was found among African cobras, it was not present among Asian cobras. On the other hand, a consistent positive correlation was observed between cytotoxicity and utilisation of the defensive hooding display that cobras are famous for. Hooding and spitting are widely regarded as defensive adaptations, but it has hitherto been uncertain whether cytotoxicity serves a defensive purpose or is somehow useful in prey subjugation. The results of this study suggest that cytotoxicity evolved primarily as a defensive innovation and that it has co-evolved twice alongside hooding behavior: once in the Hemachatus + Naja and again independently in the king cobras (Ophiophagus). There was a significant increase of cytotoxicity in the Asian Naja linked to the evolution of bold aposematic hood markings, reinforcing the link between hooding and the evolution of defensive cytotoxic venoms. In parallel, lineages with increased cytotoxicity but lacking bold hood patterns evolved aposematic markers in the form of high contrast body banding. The results also indicate that, secondary to the evolution of venom rich in cytotoxins, spitting has evolved three times independently: once within the African Naja, once within the Asian Naja, and once in the Hemachatus genus. The evolution of cytotoxic venom thus appears to facilitate the evolution of defensive spitting behaviour. In contrast, a secondary loss of cytotoxicity and reduction of the hood occurred in the water cobra Naja annulata, which possesses streamlined neurotoxic venom similar to that of other aquatic elapid snakes (e.g., hydrophiine sea snakes). The results of this study make an important contribution to our growing understanding of the selection pressures shaping the evolution of snake venom and its constituent toxins. The data also aid in elucidating the relationship between these selection pressures and the medical impact of human snakebite in the developing world, as cytotoxic cobras cause considerable morbidity including loss-of-function injuries that result in economic and social burdens in the tropics of Asia and sub-Saharan Africa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadya Panagides
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Maria P Ikonomopoulou
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia.
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia.
| | - Kevin Arbuckle
- Department of Biosciences, College of Science, Swansea University, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Rudolf Pretzler
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Daryl C Yang
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan.
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Brittany Sanker
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Angelique Asselin
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Renan C Santana
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Harold van der Ploeg
- Working Group Adder Research Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | - Jeremie Tai-A-Pin
- Working Group Venomous Bites Netherlands, RAVON, 6525 ED Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
| | | | - Harald M I Kerkkamp
- Institute of Biology Leiden (IBL), Leiden University, Sylviusweg 72, 2333 BE Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Freek J Vonk
- Naturalis Biodiversity Center, 2333 CR Leiden, The Netherlands.
| | - Arno Naude
- Snakebite Assist, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Morné A Strydom
- Department Pharmacology, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
- SYNEXUS Clinical Research SA Pty Ltd., Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Louis Jacobsz
- Zoology Department, University of Pretoria, Pretoria ZA-0001, South Africa.
| | - Nathan Dunstan
- Venom Supplies, Tanunda, South Australia 5352, Australia.
| | - Marc Jaeger
- Planet Exotica, 5 Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204 Royan, France.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Monash Venom Group, Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Clayton VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - John Miles
- QIMR Berghofer Institute of Medical Research, Herston, QLD 4049, Australia.
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD 4002, Australia.
- Australian Institute of Tropical Health and Medicine, James Cook University, Cairns, QLD 4878, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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30
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Pla D, Sanz L, Whiteley G, Wagstaff SC, Harrison RA, Casewell NR, Calvete JJ. What killed Karl Patterson Schmidt? Combined venom gland transcriptomic, venomic and antivenomic analysis of the South African green tree snake (the boomslang), Dispholidus typus. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2017; 1861:814-823. [PMID: 28130154 PMCID: PMC5335903 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2017.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2016] [Revised: 12/15/2016] [Accepted: 01/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Background Non-front-fanged colubroid snakes comprise about two-thirds of extant ophidian species. The medical significance of the majority of these snakes is unknown, but at least five species have caused life-threatening or fatal human envenomings. However, the venoms of only a small number of species have been explored. Methods A combined venomic and venom gland transcriptomic approach was employed to characterise of venom of Dispholidus typus (boomslang), the snake that caused the tragic death of Professor Karl Patterson Schmidt. The ability of CroFab™ antivenom to immunocapture boomslang venom proteins was investigated using antivenomics. Results Transcriptomic-assisted proteomic analysis identified venom proteins belonging to seven protein families: three-finger toxin (3FTx); phospholipase A2 (PLA2); cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP); snake venom (SV) serine proteinase (SP); C-type lectin-like (CTL); SV metalloproteinases (SVMPs); and disintegrin-like/cysteine-rich (DC) proteolytic fragments. CroFab™ antivenom efficiently immunodepleted some boomslang SVMPs. Conclusions The present work is the first to address the overall proteomic profile of D. typus venom. This study allowed us to correlate the toxin composition with the toxic activities of the venom. The antivenomic analysis suggested that the antivenom available at the time of the unfortunate accident could have exhibited at least some immunoreactivity against the boomslang SVMPs responsible for the disseminated intravascular coagulation syndrome that caused K.P. Schmidt's fatal outcome. General significance This study may stimulate further research on other non-front-fanged colubroid snake venoms capable of causing life-threatening envenomings to humans, which in turn should contribute to prevent fatal human accidents, such as that unfortunately suffered by K.P. Schmidt. The venom proteome of Dispholidus typus (boomslang) is reported. Transcriptomic-assisted proteomic analysis identified venom proteins belonging to seven protein families. Boomslang venom proteome is dominated (75%) by snake venom PIII-metalloproteinases (PIII-SVMPs). CroFab™ antivenom efficiently immunodepleted some boomslang PIII-SVMPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Davinia Pla
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Libia Sanz
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain
| | - Gareth Whiteley
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Simon C Wagstaff
- Bioinformatics Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Robert A Harrison
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Parasitology Department, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Laboratorio de Venómica Estructural y Funcional, Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Valencia, Spain.
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Debono J, Xie B, Violette A, Fourmy R, Jaeger M, Fry BG. Viper Venom Botox: The Molecular Origin and Evolution of the Waglerin Peptides Used in Anti-Wrinkle Skin Cream. J Mol Evol 2016; 84:8-11. [PMID: 27864608 DOI: 10.1007/s00239-016-9764-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The molecular origin of waglerin peptides has remained enigmatic despite their industrial application in skin cream products to paralyse facial muscles and thus reduce the incidence of wrinkles. Here we show that these neurotoxic peptides are the result of de novo evolution within the prepro region of the C-type natriuretic peptide gene in Tropidolaemus venoms, at a site distinct from the domain encoding for the natriuretic peptide. It is the same region that yielded the azemiopsin peptides from Azemiops feae, indicative of a close relationship of this toxin gene between these two genera. The precursor region for the molecular evolution is a biodiversity hotspot that has yielded other novel bioactive peptides with novel activities. We detail the diversity of components in this and other species in order to explore what characteristics enable it to be such a biodiscovery treasure trove. The unusual function of Tropidolaemus venoms may have been selected for due to evolutionary pressures brought about by a high likelihood of prey escape.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia
| | - Bing Xie
- BGI-Shenzhen, Shenzhen, 518083, China
| | - Aude Violette
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911, Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium
| | - Rudy Fourmy
- Alphabiotoxine Laboratory sprl, Barberie 15, 7911, Montroeul-au-bois, Belgium
| | - Marc Jaeger
- Planet Exotica, 5, Avenue des Fleurs de la Paix, 17204, Royan Cedex, France
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD, 4072, Australia.
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Yang DC, Deuis JR, Dashevsky D, Dobson J, Jackson TNW, Brust A, Xie B, Koludarov I, Debono J, Hendrikx I, Hodgson WC, Josh P, Nouwens A, Baillie GJ, Bruxner TJC, Alewood PF, Lim KKP, Frank N, Vetter I, Fry BG. The Snake with the Scorpion's Sting: Novel Three-Finger Toxin Sodium Channel Activators from the Venom of the Long-Glanded Blue Coral Snake (Calliophis bivirgatus). Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:E303. [PMID: 27763551 PMCID: PMC5086663 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8100303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2016] [Revised: 10/04/2016] [Accepted: 10/10/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Millions of years of evolution have fine-tuned the ability of venom peptides to rapidly incapacitate both prey and potential predators. Toxicofera reptiles are characterized by serous-secreting mandibular or maxillary glands with heightened levels of protein expression. These glands are the core anatomical components of the toxicoferan venom system, which exists in myriad points along an evolutionary continuum. Neofunctionalisation of toxins is facilitated by positive selection at functional hotspots on the ancestral protein and venom proteins have undergone dynamic diversification in helodermatid and varanid lizards as well as advanced snakes. A spectacular point on the venom system continuum is the long-glanded blue coral snake (Calliophis bivirgatus), a specialist feeder that preys on fast moving, venomous snakes which have both a high likelihood of prey escape but also represent significant danger to the predator itself. The maxillary venom glands of C. bivirgatus extend one quarter of the snake's body length and nestle within the rib cavity. Despite the snake's notoriety its venom has remained largely unstudied. Here we show that the venom uniquely produces spastic paralysis, in contrast to the flaccid paralysis typically produced by neurotoxic snake venoms. The toxin responsible, which we have called calliotoxin (δ-elapitoxin-Cb1a), is a three-finger toxin (3FTx). Calliotoxin shifts the voltage-dependence of NaV1.4 activation to more hyperpolarised potentials, inhibits inactivation, and produces large ramp currents, consistent with its profound effects on contractile force in an isolated skeletal muscle preparation. Voltage-gated sodium channels (NaV) are a particularly attractive pharmacological target as they are involved in almost all physiological processes including action potential generation and conduction. Accordingly, venom peptides that interfere with NaV function provide a key defensive and predatory advantage to a range of invertebrate venomous species including cone snails, scorpions, spiders, and anemones. Enhanced activation or delayed inactivation of sodium channels by toxins is associated with the extremely rapid onset of tetanic/excitatory paralysis in envenomed prey animals. A strong selection pressure exists for the evolution of such toxins where there is a high chance of prey escape. However, despite their prevalence in other venomous species, toxins causing delay of sodium channel inhibition have never previously been described in vertebrate venoms. Here we show that NaV modulators, convergent with those of invertebrates, have evolved in the venom of the long-glanded coral snake. Calliotoxin represents a functionally novel class of 3FTx and a structurally novel class of NaV toxins that will provide significant insights into the pharmacology and physiology of NaV. The toxin represents a remarkable case of functional convergence between invertebrate and vertebrate venom systems in response to similar selection pressures. These results underscore the dynamic evolution of the Toxicofera reptile system and reinforces the value of using evolution as a roadmap for biodiscovery.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daryl C Yang
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3168, Australia.
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Jennifer R Deuis
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Daniel Dashevsky
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Andreas Brust
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Bing Xie
- Bejing Genomics Institute-Shenzhen, Shenzhen 518083, China.
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Wayne C Hodgson
- Department of Pharmacology, Biomedicine Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton 3168, Australia.
| | - Peter Josh
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Gregory J Baillie
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy J C Bruxner
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Paul F Alewood
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
| | - Kelvin Kok Peng Lim
- Lee Kong Chian Natural History Museum, National University of Singapore, 2 Conservatory Drive, Singapore 117377, Singapore.
| | | | - Irina Vetter
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
- School of Pharmacy, University of Queensland, Woolloongabba 4102, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia 4072, Australia.
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Mackessy SP, Saviola AJ. Understanding Biological Roles of Venoms Among the Caenophidia: The Importance of Rear-Fanged Snakes. Integr Comp Biol 2016; 56:1004-1021. [PMID: 27639275 DOI: 10.1093/icb/icw110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Snake venoms represent an adaptive trophic response to the challenges confronting a limbless predator for overcoming combative prey, and this chemical means of subduing prey shows several dominant phenotypes. Many front-fanged snakes, particularly vipers, feed on various vertebrate and invertebrate prey species, and some of their venom components (e.g., metalloproteinases, cobratoxin) appear to have been selected for "broad-brush" incapacitation of different prey taxa. Using proteomic and genomic techniques, the compositional diversity of front-fanged snakes is becoming well characterized; however, this is not the case for most rear-fanged colubroid snakes. Because these species consume a high diversity of prey, and because venoms are primarily a trophic adaptation, important clues for understanding specific selective pressures favoring venom component composition will be found among rear-fanged snake venoms. Rear-fanged snakes typically (but not always) produce venoms with lower complexity than front-fanged snakes, and there are even fewer dominant (and, arguably, biologically most relevant) venom protein families. We have demonstrated taxon-specific toxic effects, where lizards and birds show high susceptibility while mammals are largely unaffected, for both Old World and New World rear-fanged snakes, strongly indicating a causal link between toxin evolution and prey preference. New data are presented on myotoxin a, showing that the extremely rapid paralysis induced by this rattlesnake toxin is specific for rodents, and that myotoxin a is ineffectual against lizards. Relatively few rear-fanged snake venoms have been characterized, and basic natural history data are largely lacking, but directed sampling of specialized species indicates that novel compounds are likely among these specialists, particularly among those species feeding on invertebrate prey such as scorpions and centipedes. Because many of the more than 2200 species of colubroid snakes are rear-fanged, and many possess a Duvernoy's venom gland, understanding the nature of their venoms is foundational to understanding venom evolution in advanced snakes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephen P Mackessy
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
| | - Anthony J Saviola
- School of Biological Sciences, University of Northern Colorado, 501 20th St, Greeley, CO 80639-0017, USA
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Torres-Bonilla KA, Schezaro-Ramos R, Floriano RS, Rodrigues-Simioni L, Bernal-Bautista MH, Alice da Cruz-Höfling M. Biological activities of Leptodeira annulata (banded cat-eyed snake) venom on vertebrate neuromuscular preparations. Toxicon 2016; 119:345-51. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2016.07.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2016] [Revised: 06/28/2016] [Accepted: 07/01/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Debono J, Cochran C, Kuruppu S, Nouwens A, Rajapakse NW, Kawasaki M, Wood K, Dobson J, Baumann K, Jouiaei M, Jackson TNW, Koludarov I, Low D, Ali SA, Smith AI, Barnes A, Fry BG. Canopy Venom: Proteomic Comparison among New World Arboreal Pit-Viper Venoms. Toxins (Basel) 2016; 8:toxins8070210. [PMID: 27399777 PMCID: PMC4963843 DOI: 10.3390/toxins8070210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/22/2015] [Revised: 05/28/2016] [Accepted: 06/16/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Central and South American pitvipers, belonging to the genera Bothrops and Bothriechis, have independently evolved arboreal tendencies. Little is known regarding the composition and activity of their venoms. In order to close this knowledge gap, venom proteomics and toxin activity of species of Bothriechis, and Bothrops (including Bothriopsis) were investigated through established analytical methods. A combination of proteomics and bioactivity techniques was used to demonstrate a similar diversification of venom composition between large and small species within Bothriechis and Bothriopsis. Increasing our understanding of the evolution of complex venom cocktails may facilitate future biodiscoveries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jordan Debono
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA.
| | - Sanjaya Kuruppu
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Niwanthi W Rajapakse
- Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia.
- Department of Physiology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Minami Kawasaki
- Aquatic Animal Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia.
| | - Kelly Wood
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - James Dobson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Mahdokht Jouiaei
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Dolyce Low
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
| | - Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, ICCBS, University of Karachi, Karachi-75270, Pakistan.
| | - A Ian Smith
- Department of Biochemistry & Molecular Biology, Biomedical Discovery Institute, Monash University, Clayton, VIC 3800, Australia.
| | - Andrew Barnes
- Aquatic Animal Health, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072 Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, QLD 4072, Australia.
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Phuong MA, Mahardika GN, Alfaro ME. Dietary breadth is positively correlated with venom complexity in cone snails. BMC Genomics 2016; 17:401. [PMID: 27229931 PMCID: PMC4880860 DOI: 10.1186/s12864-016-2755-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2015] [Accepted: 05/19/2016] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Although diet is believed to be a major factor underlying the evolution of venom, few comparative studies examine both venom composition and diet across a radiation of venomous species. Cone snails within the family, Conidae, comprise more than 700 species of carnivorous marine snails that capture their prey by using a cocktail of venomous neurotoxins (conotoxins or conopeptides). Venom composition across species has been previously hypothesized to be shaped by (a) prey taxonomic class (i.e., worms, molluscs, or fish) and (b) dietary breadth. We tested these hypotheses under a comparative phylogenetic framework using ecological data from past studies in conjunction with venom duct transcriptomes sequenced from 12 phylogenetically disparate cone snail species, including 10 vermivores (worm-eating), one molluscivore, and one generalist. RESULTS We discovered 2223 unique conotoxin precursor peptides that encoded 1864 unique mature toxins across all species, >90 % of which are new to this study. In addition, we identified two novel gene superfamilies and 16 novel cysteine frameworks. Each species exhibited unique venom profiles, with venom composition and expression patterns among species dominated by a restricted set of gene superfamilies and mature toxins. In contrast with the dominant paradigm for interpreting Conidae venom evolution, prey taxonomic class did not predict venom composition patterns among species. We also found a significant positive relationship between dietary breadth and measures of conotoxin complexity. CONCLUSIONS The poor performance of prey taxonomic class in predicting venom components suggests that cone snails have either evolved species-specific expression patterns likely as a consequence of the rapid evolution of conotoxin genes, or that traditional means of categorizing prey type (i.e., worms, mollusc, or fish) and conotoxins (i.e., by gene superfamily) do not accurately encapsulate evolutionary dynamics between diet and venom composition. We also show that species with more generalized diets tend to have more complex venoms and utilize a greater number of venom genes for prey capture. Whether this increased gene diversity confers an increased capacity for evolutionary change remains to be tested. Overall, our results corroborate the key role of diet in influencing patterns of venom evolution in cone snails and other venomous radiations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark A Phuong
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA.
| | - Gusti N Mahardika
- Animal Biomedical and Molecular Biology Laboratory, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Udayana University Bali, Jl Sesetan-Markisa 6, Denpasar, Bali, 80225, Indonesia
| | - Michael E Alfaro
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, CA, 90095, USA
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Oliveira LD, Scartozzoni RR, Almeida-Santos SMD, Jared C, Antoniazzi MM, Salomão MDG. Morphology of Duvernoy's Glands and Maxillary Teeth and a Possible Function of the Duvernoy's Gland Secretion inHelicops modestusGünther, 1861 (Serpentes: Xenodontinae). SOUTH AMERICAN JOURNAL OF HERPETOLOGY 2016. [DOI: 10.2994/sajh-d-16-00011.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
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Discovery of toxin-encoding genes from the false viper Macropisthodon rudis, a rear-fanged snake, by transcriptome analysis of venom gland. Toxicon 2015; 106:72-8. [PMID: 26403866 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.09.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2015] [Revised: 08/27/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Although rear-fanged snakes are often considered as non-threatening to humans, some species are lethal or medically hazardous. The toxin components and bioactivities of front-fanged snakes have been extensively studied; however, only limited research has explored the venoms of rear-fanged snakes. The false viper, Macropisthodon rudis, is widespread in southern China, but little is known about the toxins that this snake produces. Here, we analyzed the transcriptome of the venom gland of M. rudis using high-throughput sequencing with an illumina HiSeq 2000. The raw data were assembled and annotated using public databases. The Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) pathways and gene ontology (GO) were analyzed. Using sequence comparisons, snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) and a phosphodiesterase (PDE) were discovered in the venom gland of M. rudis.
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Laustsen AH, Gutiérrez JM, Rasmussen AR, Engmark M, Gravlund P, Sanders KL, Lohse B, Lomonte B. Danger in the reef: Proteome, toxicity, and neutralization of the venom of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis. Toxicon 2015; 107:187-96. [PMID: 26169672 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxicon.2015.07.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/11/2015] [Revised: 07/03/2015] [Accepted: 07/08/2015] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Four specimens of the olive sea snake, Aipysurus laevis, were collected off the coast of Western Australia, and the venom proteome was characterized and quantitatively estimated by RP-HPLC, SDS-PAGE, and MALDI-TOF-TOF analyses. A. laevis venom is remarkably simple and consists of phospholipases A2 (71.2%), three-finger toxins (3FTx; 25.3%), cysteine-rich secretory proteins (CRISP; 2.5%), and traces of a complement control module protein (CCM; 0.2%). Using a Toxicity Score, the most lethal components were determined to be short neurotoxins. Whole venom had an intravenous LD50 of 0.07 mg/kg in mice and showed a high phospholipase A2 activity, but no proteinase activity in vitro. Preclinical assessment of neutralization and ELISA immunoprofiling showed that BioCSL Sea Snake Antivenom was effective in cross-neutralizing A. laevis venom with an ED50 of 821 μg venom per mL antivenom, with a binding preference towards short neurotoxins, due to the high degree of conservation between short neurotoxins from A. laevis and Enhydrina schistosa venom. Our results point towards the possibility of developing recombinant antibodies or synthetic inhibitors against A. laevis venom due to its simplicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andreas H Laustsen
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica
| | - Arne R Rasmussen
- Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts, Schools of Architecture, Design and Conservation, Denmark
| | - Mikael Engmark
- Department of Systems Biology, Technical University of Denmark, Denmark
| | | | - Kate L Sanders
- School of Earth & Environmental Sciences, University of Adelaide, Australia
| | - Brian Lohse
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology, Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José, Costa Rica.
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Tan CH, Tan KY, Lim SE, Tan NH. Venomics of the beaked sea snake, Hydrophis schistosus: A minimalist toxin arsenal and its cross-neutralization by heterologous antivenoms. J Proteomics 2015; 126:121-30. [PMID: 26047715 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2015.05.035] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2015] [Revised: 05/14/2015] [Accepted: 05/29/2015] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
The venom proteome of Hydrophis schistosus (syn: Enhydrina schistosa) captured in Malaysian waters was investigated using reverse-phase HPLC, SDS-PAGE and high-resolution liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. The findings revealed a minimalist profile with only 18 venom proteins. These proteins belong to 5 toxin families: three-finger toxin (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), snake venom metalloprotease (SVMP) and L-amino acid oxidase (LAAO). The 3FTxs (3 short neurotoxins and 4 long neurotoxins) constitute 70.5% of total venom protein, 55.8% being short neurotoxins and 14.7% long neurotoxins. The PLA2 family consists of four basic (21.4%) and three acidic (6.1%) isoforms. The minor proteins include one CRISP (1.3%), two SVMPs (0.5%) and one LAAO (0.2%). This is the first report of the presence of long neurotoxins, CRISP and LAAO in H. schistosus venom. The neurotoxins and the basic PLA2 are highly lethal in mice with an intravenous median lethal dose of <0.2 μg/g. Cross-neutralization by heterologous elapid antivenoms (Naja kaouthia monovalent antivenom and Neuro polyvalent antivenom) was moderate against the long neurotoxin and basic PLA2, but weak against the short neurotoxin, indicating that the latter is the limiting factor to be overcome for improving the antivenom cross-neutralization efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Choo Hock Tan
- Department of Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Kae Yi Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Sin Ee Lim
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Nget Hong Tan
- Department of Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia; University of Malaya Centre for Proteomics Research, University of Malaya, 50603 Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Koludarov I, Jackson TNW, Sunagar K, Nouwens A, Hendrikx I, Fry BG. Fossilized venom: the unusually conserved venom profiles of Heloderma species (beaded lizards and gila monsters). Toxins (Basel) 2014; 6:3582-95. [PMID: 25533521 PMCID: PMC4280549 DOI: 10.3390/toxins6123582] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2014] [Revised: 12/17/2014] [Accepted: 12/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Research into snake venoms has revealed extensive variation at all taxonomic levels. Lizard venoms, however, have received scant research attention in general, and no studies of intraclade variation in lizard venom composition have been attempted to date. Despite their iconic status and proven usefulness in drug design and discovery, highly venomous helodermatid lizards (gila monsters and beaded lizards) have remained neglected by toxinological research. Proteomic comparisons of venoms of three helodermatid lizards in this study has unravelled an unusual similarity in venom-composition, despite the long evolutionary time (~30 million years) separating H. suspectum from the other two species included in this study (H. exasperatum and H. horridum). Moreover, several genes encoding the major helodermatid toxins appeared to be extremely well-conserved under the influence of negative selection (but with these results regarded as preliminary due to the scarcity of available sequences). While the feeding ecologies of all species of helodermatid lizard are broadly similar, there are significant morphological differences between species, which impact upon relative niche occupation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Kartik Sunagar
- Department of Ecology, Evolution and Behavior, the Alexander Silberman Institute for Life Sciences, Hebrew University of Jerusalem, Jerusalem 91904, Israel.
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, the University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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Ali SA, Jackson TNW, Casewell NR, Low DHW, Rossi S, Baumann K, Fathinia B, Visser J, Nouwens A, Hendrikx I, Jones A, Undheim E, Fry BG. Extreme venom variation in Middle Eastern vipers: a proteomics comparison of Eristicophis macmahonii, Pseudocerastes fieldi and Pseudocerastes persicus. J Proteomics 2014; 116:106-13. [PMID: 25241240 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2014] [Revised: 08/28/2014] [Accepted: 09/06/2014] [Indexed: 10/24/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Venoms of the viperid sister genera Eristicophis and Pseudocerastes are poorly studied despite their anecdotal reputation for producing severe or even lethal envenomations. This is due in part to the remote and politically unstable regions that they occupy. All species contained are sit and wait ambush feeders. Thus, this study examined their venoms through proteomics techniques in order to establish if this feeding ecology, and putatively low levels of gene flow, have resulted in significant variations in venom profile. The techniques indeed revealed extreme venom variation. This has immediate implications as only one antivenom is made (using the venom of Pseudocerastes persicus) yet the proteomic variation suggests that it would be of only limited use for the other species, even the sister species Pseudocerastes fieldi. The high degree of variation however also points toward these species being rich resources for novel compounds which may have use as lead molecules in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results show extreme venom variation between these closely related snakes. These results have direct implications for the treatment of the envenomed patient.
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Affiliation(s)
- Syed A Ali
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; HEJ Research Institute of Chemistry, International Centre for Chemical and Biological Sciences (ICCBS), University of Karachi, Karachi 75270, Pakistan; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Timothy N W Jackson
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Nicholas R Casewell
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Alistair Reid Venom Research Unit, Liverpool School of Tropical Medicine, Liverpool L3 5QA, UK
| | - Dolyce H W Low
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Sarah Rossi
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Kate Baumann
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Behzad Fathinia
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Yasouj University, 75914 Yasouj, Iran
| | - Jeroen Visser
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Life Sciences, Hogeschool Inholland Amsterdam, 1081 HV, The Netherlands
| | - Amanda Nouwens
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Qld 4072, Australia
| | - Iwan Hendrikx
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Alun Jones
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Eba Undheim
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia
| | - Bryan G Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St Lucia, Queensland 4520, Australia.
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Saviola AJ, Peichoto ME, Mackessy SP. Rear-fanged snake venoms: an untapped source of novel compounds and potential drug leads. TOXIN REV 2014. [DOI: 10.3109/15569543.2014.942040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Case solved: presence of toxin-secreting oral glands in the lamprophiid snake Mimophis mahfalensis (Grandidier, 1867) from Madagascar. ZOOMORPHOLOGY 2014. [DOI: 10.1007/s00435-014-0234-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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45
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Schaffrath S, Predel R. A simple protocol for venom peptide barcoding in scorpions. EUPA OPEN PROTEOMICS 2014. [DOI: 10.1016/j.euprot.2014.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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46
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Lomonte B, Pla D, Sasa M, Tsai WC, Solórzano A, Ureña-Díaz JM, Fernández-Montes ML, Mora-Obando D, Sanz L, Gutiérrez JM, Calvete JJ. Two color morphs of the pelagic yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, from different locations of Costa Rica: snake venomics, toxicity, and neutralization by antivenom. J Proteomics 2014; 103:137-52. [PMID: 24704853 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.03.034] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2014] [Accepted: 03/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, is the most broadly distributed snake species. Despite being endowed with a highly lethal venom, a proteomic analysis of its toxin composition was unavailable. The venoms of specimens collected in Golfo de Papagayo and Golfo Dulce (Costa Rica), where two distinctive color morphs occur, were chromatographically compared. The latter inhabits a fjord-like gulf where the transit of oceanic sea snakes into and from the basin is restricted, thus possibly affecting gene flow. RP-HPLC evidenced a conserved venom protein profile in both populations, despite their divergent color phenotypes. Following a trend observed in other sea snakes, P. platura venom is relatively simple, being composed of proteins of the three-finger toxin (3FTx), phospholipase A2 (PLA2), cysteine-rich secretory protein (CRISP), 5'-nucleotidase, and metalloproteinase families. The first three groups represent 49.9%, 32.9%, and 9.1% of total venom protein, respectively. The most abundant component (~26%) is pelamitoxin (P62388), a short-chain 3FTx, followed by a major basic PLA2 (~20%) and a group of three isoforms of CRISPs (~9%). Whereas isolated pelamitoxin was highly lethal to mice, neither the PLA2 nor the CRISP fraction caused death. However, the PLA2 rapidly increased plasma creatine kinase activity after intramuscular injection, indicating its myotoxic action. Differing from myotoxic PLA2s of viperids, this PLA2 was not cytolytic to murine myogenic cells in vitro, suggesting possible differences in its mechanism of action. The median lethal dose (LD50) estimates for P. platura crude venom in mice and in three species of fishes did not differ significantly. The sea snake antivenom manufactured by CSL Ltd. (Australia), which uses Enhydrina schistosa as immunogen, cross-recognized the three major components of P. platura venom and, accordingly, neutralized the lethal activity of crude venom and pelamitoxin, therefore being of potential usefulness in the treatment of envenomations by this species. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE Integrative analyses of animal venoms that combine the power of proteomics (venomics) with the characterization of their functional and immunological properties are significantly expanding knowledge on these remarkable bioweapons, both from a basic and a medical perspective. Costa Rica harbors a unique population of the yellow-bellied sea snake, Pelamis platura, that is restricted to a fjord-like gulf (Golfo Dulce). This population differs markedly from oceanic populations found elsewhere along the Pacific coast of this country, by presenting a patternless bright yellow coloration, instead of the typical bicolored or tricolored pattern of this species. It has been suggested that the dominance of this yellow-morph in Golfo Dulce might reflect gene flow restrictions, caused by the oceanographic conditions at this location. The present study demonstrates that the remarkable phenotypic variation between the two color morphs inhabiting Golfo Dulce and Golfo de Papagayo, respectively, is not associated with differences in the expression of venom components, as shown by their conserved RP-HPLC profiles. Proteomic analysis revealed the relatively simple toxin composition of P. platura venom, which contains three predominant types of proteins: three-finger toxins (protein abundance: 49.9%), phospholipases A2 (32.9%), and cysteine-rich secretory proteins (9.1%), together with few minor components. Further, the involvement of these most abundant proteins in the toxic effects of the venom, and their cross-recognition and neutralization by a sea snake antivenom produced against the venom of Enhydrina schistosa, were analyzed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruno Lomonte
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica.
| | - Davinia Pla
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - Mahmood Sasa
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Wan-Chih Tsai
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | | | - Juan Manuel Ureña-Díaz
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | | | - Diana Mora-Obando
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Libia Sanz
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain
| | - José María Gutiérrez
- Instituto Clodomiro Picado, Facultad de Microbiología, Universidad de Costa Rica, San José 11501, Costa Rica
| | - Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, CSIC, Jaume Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain.
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Calvete JJ. Next-generation snake venomics: protein-locus resolution through venom proteome decomplexation. Expert Rev Proteomics 2014; 11:315-29. [PMID: 24678852 DOI: 10.1586/14789450.2014.900447] [Citation(s) in RCA: 92] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Venom research has been continuously enhanced by technological advances. High-throughput technologies are changing the classical paradigm of hypothesis-driven research to technology-driven approaches. However, the thesis advocated in this paper is that full proteome coverage at locus-specific resolution requires integrating the best of both worlds into a protocol that includes decomplexation of the venom proteome prior to liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry matching against a species-specific transcriptome. This approach offers the possibility of proof-checking the species-specific contig database using proteomics data. Immunoaffinity chromatography constitutes the basis of an antivenomics workflow designed to quantify the extent of cross-reactivity of antivenoms against homologous and heterologous venom toxins. In the author's view, snake venomics and antivenomics form part of a biology-driven conceptual framework to unveil the genesis and natural history of venoms, and their within- and between-species toxicological and immunological divergences and similarities. Understanding evolutionary trends across venoms represents the Rosetta Stone for generating broad-ranging polyspecific antivenoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan J Calvete
- Instituto de Biomedicina de Valencia, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Jaime Roig 11, 46010 Valencia, Spain +34 963 391 778 +34 963 690 800
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48
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Weinstein SA, Griffin R, Ismail AK. Non-front-fanged colubroid ("colubrid") snakebites: three cases of local envenoming by the mangrove or ringed cat-eyed snake (Boiga dendrophila; Colubridae, Colubrinae), the Western beaked snake (Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus; Lamprophiidae, Psammophinae) and the rain forest cat-eyed snake (Leptodeira frenata; Dipsadidae). Clin Toxicol (Phila) 2014; 52:277-82. [PMID: 24645905 DOI: 10.3109/15563650.2014.897352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022]
Abstract
CONTEXT Non-front-fanged colubroid snakes (NFFC; formerly and artificially taxonomically assembled as "colubrids") comprise the majority of extant ophidian species. Although the medical risks of bites by a handful of species have been documented, the majority of these snakes have oral products (Duvernoy's secretions, or venoms) with unknown biomedical properties/unverified functions and their potential for causing harm in humans is unknown. CASE DETAILS Described are three cases of local envenoming from NFFC bites inflicted respectively by the mangrove or ringed cat-eyed snake (Boiga dendrophila, Colubridae), the Western beaked snake (Rhamphiophis oxyrhynchus, Lamprophiidae) and the rain forest cat-eyed snake (Leptodeira frenata, Dipsadidae). The effects ranged from mild pain, edema and erythema to severe pain, progressive edema, and blistering with slowly resolving arthralgia; there were no systemic effects. DISCUSSION Although these three taxa occasionally inflict bites with mild to moderate local effects, there is no current evidence of systemic involvement. Two of these cases were reported to one of the authors for medical evaluation, and although verified, thus constitute reliably reported cases, but low-quality evidence. Type-1 local hypersensitivity may contribute to some cases, but most local effects observed or reported in these three cases were consistent with the effects of venom/oral product components.
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Affiliation(s)
- S A Weinstein
- Department of Toxinology, Women's and Children's Hospital , North Adelaide, SA , Australia
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49
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Izidoro LFM, Sobrinho JC, Mendes MM, Costa TR, Grabner AN, Rodrigues VM, da Silva SL, Zanchi FB, Zuliani JP, Fernandes CFC, Calderon LA, Stábeli RG, Soares AM. Snake venom L-amino acid oxidases: trends in pharmacology and biochemistry. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:196754. [PMID: 24738050 PMCID: PMC3971498 DOI: 10.1155/2014/196754] [Citation(s) in RCA: 115] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2013] [Revised: 12/13/2013] [Accepted: 12/16/2013] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
L-amino acid oxidases are enzymes found in several organisms, including venoms of snakes, where they contribute to the toxicity of ophidian envenomation. Their toxicity is primarily due to enzymatic activity, but other mechanisms have been proposed recently which require further investigation. L-amino acid oxidases exert biological and pharmacological effects, including actions on platelet aggregation and the induction of apoptosis, hemorrhage, and cytotoxicity. These proteins present a high biotechnological potential for the development of antimicrobial, antitumor, and antiprotozoan agents. This review provides an overview of the biochemical properties and pharmacological effects of snake venom L-amino acid oxidases, their structure/activity relationship, and supposed mechanisms of action described so far.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luiz Fernando M. Izidoro
- Faculdade de Ciências Integradas do Pontal e Departamento de Genética e Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Juliana C. Sobrinho
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Mirian M. Mendes
- Faculdade de Ciências Integradas do Pontal e Departamento de Genética e Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Tássia R. Costa
- Departamento de Análises Clínicas, Toxicológicas e Bromatológicas, Faculdade de Ciências Farmacêuticas de Ribeirão Preto (FCFRP), Universidade de São Paulo (USP), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil
| | - Amy N. Grabner
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Veridiana M. Rodrigues
- Faculdade de Ciências Integradas do Pontal e Departamento de Genética e Bioquímica, Universidade Federal de Uberlândia (UFU), Uberlândia, MG, Brazil
| | - Saulo L. da Silva
- Departamento de Química, Biotecnologia e Engenharia de Bioprocessos, Universidade Federal de São João del Rei (UFSJ), Campus Altoparaopeba, Ouro Branco, MG, Brazil
| | - Fernando B. Zanchi
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Juliana P. Zuliani
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Carla F. C. Fernandes
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Leonardo A. Calderon
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Rodrigo G. Stábeli
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
| | - Andreimar M. Soares
- Centro de Estudos de Biomoléculas Aplicadas à Saúde, (CEBio), Fundação Oswaldo Cruz, Fiocruz Rondônia e Departamento de Medicina, Universidade Federal de Rondônia (UNIR), Porto Velho, RO, Brazil
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50
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Sunagar K, Undheim EAB, Scheib H, Gren ECK, Cochran C, Person CE, Koludarov I, Kelln W, Hayes WK, King GF, Antunes A, Fry BG. Intraspecific venom variation in the medically significant Southern Pacific Rattlesnake (Crotalus oreganus helleri): biodiscovery, clinical and evolutionary implications. J Proteomics 2014; 99:68-83. [PMID: 24463169 DOI: 10.1016/j.jprot.2014.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 84] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2013] [Revised: 01/11/2014] [Accepted: 01/13/2014] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED Due to the extreme variation of venom, which consequently results in drastically variable degrees of neutralization by CroFab antivenom, the management and treatment of envenoming by Crotalus oreganus helleri (the Southern Pacific Rattlesnake), one of the most medically significant snake species in all of North America, has been a clinician's nightmare. This snake has also been the subject of sensational news stories regarding supposed rapid (within the last few decades) evolution of its venom. This research demonstrates for the first time that variable evolutionary selection pressures sculpt the intraspecific molecular diversity of venom components in C. o. helleri. We show that myotoxic β-defensin peptides (aka: crotamines/small basic myotoxic peptides) are secreted in large amounts by all populations. However, the mature toxin-encoding nucleotide regions evolve under the constraints of negative selection, likely as a result of their non-specific mode of action which doesn't enforce them to follow the regime of the classic predator-prey chemical arms race. The hemorrhagic and tissue destroying snake venom metalloproteinases (SVMPs) were secreted in larger amounts by the Catalina Island and Phelan rattlesnake populations, in moderate amounts in the Loma Linda population and in only trace levels by the Idyllwild population. Only the Idyllwild population in the San Jacinto Mountains contained potent presynaptic neurotoxic phospholipase A2 complex characteristic of Mohave Rattlesnake (Crotalus scutulatus) and Neotropical Rattlesnake (Crotalus durissus terrificus). The derived heterodimeric lectin toxins characteristic of viper venoms, which exhibit a diversity of biological activities, including anticoagulation, agonism/antagonism of platelet activation, or procoagulation, appear to have evolved under extremely variable selection pressures. While most lectin α- and β-chains evolved rapidly under the influence of positive Darwinian selection, the β-chain lectin of the Catalina Island population appears to have evolved under the constraint of negative selection. Both lectin chains were conspicuously absent in both the proteomics and transcriptomics of the Idyllwild population. Thus, we not only highlight the tremendous biochemical diversity in C. o. helleri's venom-arsenal, but we also show that they experience remarkably variable strengths of evolutionary selection pressures, within each toxin class among populations and among toxin classes within each population. The mapping of geographical venom variation not only provides additional information regarding venom evolution, but also has direct medical implications by allowing prediction of the clinical effects of rattlesnake bites from different regions. Such information, however, also points to these highly variable venoms as being a rich source of novel toxins which may ultimately prove to be useful in drug design and development. BIOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE These results have direct implications for the treatment of envenomed patients. The variable venom profile of Crotalus oreganus helleri underscores the biodiscovery potential of novel snake venoms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kartik Sunagar
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Eivind A B Undheim
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Holger Scheib
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Eric C K Gren
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Chip Cochran
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Carl E Person
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Ivan Koludarov
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia
| | - Wayne Kelln
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - William K Hayes
- Department of Earth and Biological Sciences, Loma Linda University, Loma Linda, CA 92350, USA
| | - Glenn F King
- Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia
| | - Agosthino Antunes
- Departamento de Biologia, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade do Porto, Rua do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal; CIIMAR/CIMAR, Interdisciplinary Centre of Marine and Environmental Research, University of Porto, Rua dos Bragas 289, P 4050-123 Porto, Portugal
| | - Bryan Grieg Fry
- Venom Evolution Lab, School of Biological Sciences, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland, Australia; Institute for Molecular Bioscience, University of Queensland, St. Lucia, Queensland 4072, Australia.
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