Determination of salvinorins and divinatorins in Salvia divinorum leaves by liquid chromatography/multistage mass spectrometry

Rapid Detection and Quantification of Hallucinogenic Salvinorin A in Commercial Salvia divinorum Products by DART-HRMS

In recent years, national laboratories have identified several plant-derived materials as concerns to public health because of their psychoactive effects, potential for abuse, and the lack of federal regulation of their use. One of these is Salvia divinorum (aka Salvia), which has received focused attention due to its increasing recreational use and the ease by which it can be acquired. Traditional chromatographic approaches for the detection of the major psychoactive component of Salvia (i.e., salvinorin A) typically require time-consuming sample pretreatment prior to identifying the presence of salvinorin A in plant material unknowns. In this study, direct analysis in real time-high-resolution mass spectrometry (DART-HRMS) was used to rapidly screen for Salvia plant material. This approach facilitated the analysis of bulk material in its native form, thereby bypassing sample pretreatment steps. In addition, a validated DART-HRMS method was developed for the quantification of salvinorin A in commercial Salvia products (e.g., raw plant materials, enhanced leaf extracts). In this regard, cholesterol was found to be a suitable internal standard. The average salvinorin A content in raw Salvia leaves was determined to be 1.54 mg/g, while the salvinorin A quantified in enhanced Salvia leaf extracts was between 13.0 and 53.2 mg/g.

Psychoactive Substances of Natural Origin: Toxicological Aspects, Therapeutic Properties and Analysis in Biological Samples

The consumption of new psychoactive substances (NPSs) has been increasing, and this problem affects several countries worldwide. There is a class of NPSs of natural origin, consisting of plants and fungi, which have a wide range of alkaloids, responsible for causing relaxing, stimulating or hallucinogenic effects. The consumption of some of these substances is prompted by religious beliefs and cultural reasons, making the legislation very variable or even ambiguous. However, the abusive consumption of these substances can present an enormous risk to the health of the individuals, since their metabolism and effects are not yet fully known. Additionally, NPSs are widely spread over the internet, and their appearance is very fast, which requires the development of sophisticated analytical methodologies, capable of detecting these compounds. Thus, the objective of this work is to review the toxicological aspects, traditional use/therapeutic potential and the analytical methods developed in biological matrices in twelve plant specimens (Areca catechu, Argyreia nervosa, Ayahuasca, Catha edulis, Datura stramonium, Lophophora williamsii, Mandragora officinarum, Mitragyna speciosa, Piper methysticum Forst, Psilocybe, Salvia divinorum and Tabernanthe iboga).

Overview of the major classes of new psychoactive substances, psychoactive effects, analytical determination and conformational analysis of selected illegal drugs

The misuse of psychoactive substances is attracting a great deal of attention from the general public. An increase use of psychoactive substances is observed among young people who do not have enough awareness of the harmful effects of these substances. Easy access to illicit drugs at low cost and lack of effective means of routine screening for new psychoactive substances (NPS) have contributed to the rapid increase in their use. New research and evidence suggest that drug use can cause a variety of adverse psychological and physiological effects on human health (anxiety, panic, paranoia, psychosis, and seizures). We describe different classes of these NPS drugs with emphasis on the methods used to identify them and the identification of their metabolites in biological specimens. This is the first review that thoroughly gives the literature on both natural and synthetic illegal drugs with old known data and very hot new topics and investigations, which enables the researcher to use it as a starting point in the literature exploration and planning of the own research. For the first time, the conformational analysis was done for selected illegal drugs, giving rise to the search of the biologically active conformations both theoretically and using lab experiments.

Pharmacokinetics and Pharmacodynamics of Salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum: Clinical and Forensic Aspects

Salvia divinorum Epling and Játiva is a perennial mint from the Lamiaceae family, endemic to Mexico, predominantly from the state of Oaxaca. Due to its psychoactive properties, S. divinorum had been used for centuries by Mazatecans for divinatory, religious, and medicinal purposes. In recent years, its use for recreational purposes, especially among adolescents and young adults, has progressively increased. The main bioactive compound underlying the hallucinogenic effects, salvinorin A, is a non-nitrogenous diterpenoid with high affinity and selectivity for the κ-opioid receptor. The aim of this work is to comprehensively review and discuss the toxicokinetics and toxicodynamics of S. divinorum and salvinorin A, highlighting their psychological, physiological, and toxic effects. Potential therapeutic applications and forensic aspects are also covered in this review. The leaves of S. divinorum can be chewed, drunk as an infusion, smoked, or vaporised. Absorption of salvinorin A occurs through the oral mucosa or the respiratory tract, being rapidly broken down in the gastrointestinal system to its major inactive metabolite, salvinorin B, when swallowed. Salvinorin A is rapidly distributed, with accumulation in the brain, and quickly eliminated. Its pharmacokinetic parameters parallel well with the short-lived psychoactive and physiological effects. No reports on toxicity or serious adverse outcomes were found. A variety of therapeutic applications have been proposed for S. divinorum which includes the treatment of chronic pain, gastrointestinal and mood disorders, neurological diseases, and treatment of drug dependence. Notwithstanding, there is still limited knowledge regarding the pharmacology and toxicology features of S. divinorum and salvinorin A, and this is needed due to its widespread use. Additionally, the clinical acceptance of salvinorin A has been hampered, especially due to the psychotropic side effects and misuse, turning the scientific community to the development of analogues with better pharmacological profiles.

DARK Classics in Chemical Neuroscience: Salvinorin A

Salvinorin A is the main bioactive compound in Salvia divinorum, an endemic plant with ancestral use by the inhabitants of the Mazateca mountain range (Sierra Mazateca) in Oaxaca, México. The main use of la pastora, as locally known, is in spiritual rites due to its extraordinary hallucinogenic effects. Being the first known nonalkaloidal opioid-mediated psychotropic molecule, salvinorin A set new research areas in neuroscience. The absence of a protonated amine group, common to all previously known opioids, results in a fast metabolism with the concomitant fast elimination and swift loss of activity. The worldwide spread and psychotropic effects of salvinorin A account for its misuse and classification as a drug of abuse. Consequently, salvinorin A and Salvia divinorum are now banned in many countries. Several synthetic efforts have been focused on the improvement of physicochemical and biological properties of salvinorin A: from total synthesis to hundreds of analogues. In this Review, we discuss the impact of salvinorin A in chemistry and neuroscience covering the historical relevance, isolation from natural sources, synthetic efforts, and pharmacological and safety profiles. Altogether, the chemistry behind and the taboo that encloses salvinorin A makes it one of the most exquisite naturally occurring drugs.

Screening of Hallucinogenic Compounds and Genomic Characterisation of 40 Anatolian Salvia Species

INTRODUCTION

Salvia, an important and widely available member of Lamiaceae family. Although comparative analysis on secondary metabolites in several Salvia species from Turkey has been reported, their hallucinogenic chemicals have not been screened thoroughly.

OBJECTIVE

This study provides LC-MS/MS analysis of 40 Salvia species for screening their psychoactive constituents of salvinorin A and salvinorin B. 5S-rRNA gene non-coding region of Salvia plants was sequenced, aligned and compared with that sequence of Salvia divinorum plant.

METHODOLOGY

Targeted molecules of salvinorin A and salvinorin B were quantified, using LC-MS/MS, from all aerial parts of 40 Salvia species, collected from different parts of Turkey. Regions of 5S-rRNA gene from different species were amplified by polymerase chain reaction and DNA sequences were aligned with Salvia divinorum DNA sequences.

RESULTS

Very few of the Salvia species (S. recognita, S. cryptantha and S. glutinosa) contained relatively high levels of salvinorin A (212.86 ± 20.46 μg/g, 51.50 ± 4.95 μg/g and 38.92 ± 3.74 μg/g, respectively). Salvinorin B was also found in Salvia species of S. potentillifolia, S. adenocaulon and S. cryptantha as 2351.99 ± 232.22 μg/g, 768.78 ± 75.90 μg/g and 402.24 ± 39.71 μg/g, respectively. The sequences of 5S-rRNA gene of 40 different Salvia species were presented and it was found that none of the Salvia species in Turkey had similar DNA sequence to Salvia divinorum plant.

CONCLUSION

This is the first report of screening 40 Salvia species in Turkey according to their psychoactive constituents, salvinorin A and salvinorin B and their genomic structures. It is possible that some of these Salvia species may exhibit some psycho activity. Thus, they need to be screened further. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Salvinorina A: terpeno alucinógeno presente en Salvia divinorum Epling & Játiva

Tema y alcance: el objetivo de esta revisión es presentar los estudios químicos que se han realizado sobre Salvia divinorum E&J en estos últimos años. Características: desde la década de 1990 hasta hoy se ha incrementado la distribución y el uso de Salvia divinorum E&J para “fines recreativos”, debido a sus efectos alucinógenos y a su fácil acceso. Sus efectos en el organismo se han relacionado con las de otras sustancias como: delta-9-THC en la marihuana, DMT, LSD , MDMA, PCP y ketamina. Hallazgos: las investigaciones químicas realizadas en otros países sobre Salvia divinorum E&J se enfocan en los procesos de extracción, determinación, cuantificación, análisis y biosíntesis de Salvinorina A, compuesto químico al cual se le atribuye la bioactividad de la planta. Este compuesto es considerado como uno de los alucinógenos más potentes de origen natural, además de ser química y estructuralmente único, puesto que fue el primer diterpeno conocido con actividad psicoactiva. Conclusiones: la presente revisión encontró que en los últimos años las investigaciones químicas en Salvia divinorum E&J están enfocadas a través del uso de cromatografía de gases y cromatografía líquida en diversas matrices como hojas, sangre, orina y agua, con el fin de determinar la Salvinorina A y otros metabolitos presentes en la planta. En una de las investigaciones, comprobaron por RMN y HR-ESI-MS que la biosíntesis de Salvinorina A está dada por la ruta metabólica del ácido mevalónico y la ruta del metileritritol fosfato, las cuales corresponden a las rutas metabólicas para la biosíntesis de terpenos.

An overview of recent developments in the analytical detection of new psychoactive substances (NPSs)

New psychoactive substances (NPSs), sometimes referred to as "legal highs" in more colloquial environments/the media, are a class of compounds that have been recently made available for abuse (not necessarily recently discovered) which provide similar effects to the traditional well studied illegal drugs but are not always controlled under existing local, regional or international drug legislation. Following an unprecedented increase in the number of NPSs in the last 5 years (with 101 substances discovered for the first time in 2014 alone) its, occasionally fatal, consequences have been extensively reported in the media. Such NPSs are typically marketed as 'not for human consumption' and are instead labelled and sold as plant food, bath salts as well as a whole host of other equally nondescript aliases in order to bypass legislative controls. NPSs are a new multi-disciplinary research field with the main emphasis in terms of forensic identification due to their adverse health effects, which can range from minimal to life threatening and even fatalities. In this mini-review we overview this recent emerging research area of NPSs and the analytical approaches reported to provide detection strategies as well as detailing recent reports towards providing point-of-care/in-the-field NPS ("legal high") sensors.

Salvia divinorum: from Mazatec medicinal and hallucinogenic plant to emerging recreational drug

Salvia divinorum is a sage endemic to a small region of Mexico and has been traditionally used by the Mazatec Indians for divination and spiritual healing. Recently, it has gained increased popularity as a recreational drug, used by adolescents and young adults as an alternative to marijuana and LSD. Salvinorin A, the major active ingredient of the plant, is considered to be the most potent known hallucinogen of natural origin. This review surveys the current state of knowledge on the neurochemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacological properties of salvinorin A, the trends and motivation behind S. divinorum use, and the health problems among users of the plant's products. S. divinorum induces intense, but short-lived, psychedelic-like changes in mood and perception, with concomitant hallucinations and disorientation. Many websites have misinterpreted the limited existing research-based information on the side effects of salvia as evidence for its safety. However, data accumulated over the last few years indicate that potential health risks are associated with the use of S. divinorum, especially by teenagers, users of other substances of abuse, and individuals with underlying psychotic disturbances. Taken together, the data presented in this review point to the need for further basic and clinical studies to create a basis for the development of well-addressed prevention and treatment strategies.

Vegetative anatomy and micromorphology of Salvia divinorum (Lamiaceae) from Mexico, combined with chromatographic analysis of salvinorin A

Salvia divinorum--a species traditionally cultivated in Oaxaca, Mexico--possesses hallucinogenic properties. It is legally recognized as a controlled substance and prohibited in many countries. The proper identification of the plant, both in fresh and dried forms, is an important issue in crime-prevention campaigns. This paper provides a thorough anatomical description of leaves, petioles, and stems of S. divinorum. Detailed investigation of foliar trichomes was performed and illustrated. In addition, chromatographic analyses, including TLC and HPLC, were applied to fresh and dried plant material, together with the standard reference salvinorin A. A comprehensive identification method for S. divinorum based on a thorough anatomical examination is proposed, combined with chemical analysis for proper plant recognition.

Histomorphology of Helicobacter pylori-associated chronic gastritis in Ilorin

The presence or absence of Helicobacter pylori in gastric biopsies is of significant therapeutic implication. The aim of the study was to review gastric biopsies taken from dyspeptic patients in the University of Ilorin Teaching Hospital for H. pylori mucosa positivity and other parameters of chronic gastritis. Fifty-seven chronic gastritis cases were evaluated using the updated Sydney classification scheme. There were 27 males and 30 females with a mean age of 48.8 +/- 15.6 years. Chronic mononuclear inflammatory infiltrates ranging from mild, moderate to marked was seen in 15 (26.3%), 29 (50.9%) and 13 (22.8%) cases respectively. H. pylori was positive in 28 cases (49.1%) while the rest were H. pylori negative. Neutrophil activity was observed in 39 cases (68.4%). Non-atrophic gastritis was seen in 39 cases (68.4%) while atrophic gastritis ranging from mild to moderate changes was seen in 18 cases (31.6%). Intestinal metaplasia was found in 5 cases (8.8%) and it comprised of type I (3 cases) and type II (2 cases). H. pylori was the main aetiological agent responsible for chronic gastritis, commonly found in the antral mucosal biopsies and the majority presented with mild-moderate chronic inflammatory changes.

A tandem mass spectrometric investigation of the low-energy collision-activated fragmentation of neo-clerodane diterpenes

Mass spectrometric fragmentation data of neo-clerodane diterpenes are almost inexistent but they can prove helpful for the qualitative and quantitative analysis of these compounds as well as for the identification of unknown compounds belonging to this class of plant secondary metabolites. [M-H](-) ions of nine neo-clerodane diterpenes (1-9), recently isolated from Teucrium chamaedrys, were generated by electrospray ionization and were fragmented in the collision cell of a Triple Quadrupole (TQ) and of a Quadrupole Ion Trap (QIT) mass spectrometer. The deprotonated neo-clerodane glucosides, chamaedryoside A and B (1, 2), readily lost the sugar residue to give, as their main fragmentation channel, the neo-clerodane ions, I and II, which were structurally characterized by TQ and QIT MS. The collision-activated dissociation (CAD) mass spectra of I and II and of deprotonated neo-clerodanes 3-9 allowed us to reach some general conclusions on the fragmentation pathways of this class of compounds. For example, teuflin and its OH derivatives, teucrin A, teuflidin and 6-beta-hydroxyteucridin, showed a characteristic fragmentation pattern involving the loss of 94 Da and 124 Da from the lactone moiety, whereas a loss of 44 Da was observed for teucrin E, and of 58 Da for teucrin F and G. In addition, several compound-specific fragmentations were observed and can be proposed for the identification of individual compounds. The systematic approach allowed us to hypothesize the mechanisms of the most important collision-activated dissociation/isomerization channels.

Direct analysis of Salvia divinorum leaves for salvinorin A by thin layer chromatography and desorption electrospray ionization multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry

Salvia divinorum is widely cultivated in the US, Mexico, Central and South America and Europe and is consumed for its ability to produce hallucinogenic effects similar to those of other scheduled hallucinogenic drugs, such as LSD. Salvinorin A (SA), a kappa opiod receptor agonist and psychoactive constituent, is found primarily in the leaves and to a lesser extent in the stems of the plant. Herein, the analysis of intact S. divinorum leaves for SA and of acetone extracts separated using thin layer chromatography (TLC) is demonstrated using desorption electrospray ionization (DESI) mass spectrometry. The detection of SA using DESI in the positive ion mode is characterized by several ions associated with the compound - [M+H](+), [M+NH(4)](+), [M+Na](+), [2M+NH(4)](+), and [2M+Na](+). Confirmation of the identity of these ions is provided through exact mass measurements using a time-of-flight (ToF) mass spectrometer. The presence of SA in the leaves was confirmed by multi-stage tandem mass spectrometry (MS(n)) of the [M+H](+) ion using a linear ion trap mass spectrometer. Direct analysis of the leaves revealed several species of salvinorin in addition to SA as confirmed by MS(n), including salvinorin B, C, D/E, and divinatorin B. Further, the results from DESI imaging of a TLC separation of a commercial leaf extract and an acetone extract of S. divinorum leaves were in concordance with the TLC/DESI-MS results of an authentic salvinorin A standard. The present study provides an example of both the direct analysis of intact plant materials for screening illicit substances and the coupling of TLC and DESI-MS as a simple method for the examination of natural products.

In vitro stability and metabolism of salvinorin A in rat plasma

Salvinorin A is the main active psychoactive ingredient in Salvia divinorum, a Mexican plant that has been widely available as a hallucinogen in recent years. The aims of this study were to investigate the stability of salvinorin A in rat plasma, esterases responsible for its degradation, and estimation of the degradation products. The apparent first-order rate constants of salvinorin A at 37 degrees C, 25 degrees C, and 4 degrees C were 3.8 x 10(-1), 1.1 x 10(-1), and < 6.0 x 10(-3) h(-1), respectively. Salvinorin A degradation was markedly inhibited by the addition of sodium fluoride, an esterase inhibitor. Moreover, phenylmethylsulfonyl fluoride (serine esterase inhibitor) and bis-p-nitrophenylphosphate (carboxylesterase inhibitor) also inhibited salvinorin A degradation. In contrast, little or no suppression of the degradation was seen with 5,5'-dithiobis-2-nitrobenzoic acid (arylesterase inhibitor),ethopropazine (butyrylcholinesterase inhibitor), and BW284c51 (acetylcholineseterase inhibitor). These findings indicated that carboxylesterase was mainly involved in the salvinorin A hydrolysis in rat plasma.4. The degradation products of salvinorin A estimated by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry included the deacetylated form (salvinorin B) and the lactone-ring-open forms of salvinorin A and salvinorin B. This lactone-ring-opening reactions were involved in calcium-dependent lactonase.

Structure-based design, synthesis, and biochemical and pharmacological characterization of novel salvinorin A analogues as active state probes of the kappa-opioid receptor

Salvinorin A, the most potent naturally occurring hallucinogen, has attracted an increasing amount of attention since the kappa-opioid receptor (KOR) was identified as its principal molecular target by us [Roth, B. L., et al. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 11934-11939]. Here we report the design, synthesis, and biochemical characterization of novel, irreversible, salvinorin A-derived ligands suitable as active state probes of the KOR. On the basis of prior substituted cysteine accessibility and molecular modeling studies, C315(7.38) was chosen as a potential anchoring point for covalent labeling of salvinorin A-derived ligands. Automated docking of a series of potential covalently bound ligands suggested that either a haloacetate moiety or other similar electrophilic groups could irreversibly bind with C315(7.38). 22-Thiocyanatosalvinorin A (RB-64) and 22-chlorosalvinorin A (RB-48) were both found to be extraordinarily potent and selective KOR agonists in vitro and in vivo. As predicted on the basis of molecular modeling studies, RB-64 induced wash-resistant inhibition of binding with a strict requirement for a free cysteine in or near the binding pocket. Mass spectrometry (MS) studies utilizing synthetic KOR peptides and RB-64 supported the hypothesis that the anchoring residue was C315(7.38) and suggested one biochemical mechanism for covalent binding. These studies provide direct evidence of the presence of a free cysteine in the agonist-bound state of the KOR and provide novel insights into the mechanism by which salvinorin A binds to and activates the KOR.

Qualitative and quantitative analysis of toosendanin in Melia toosendan Sieb. Et Zucc (Meliaceae) with liquid chromatography/tandem mass spectrometry

Toosendanin (TSN) is a triterpenoid derivative found in Melia toosendan Sieb. Et Zucc (Meliaceae) or chinaberry. TSN present in the medicinal plants was first isolated and established by spectroscopic methods. In this report, high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) separation using columns of smaller particle size with tandem mass spectrometry (MS(n)) was used for the rapid determination of TSN in botanical extracts. A comparison of different fragmentation patterns shows that the results from positive and negative ion electrospray ionization (ESI)-MS(n) are complementary. The two modes can yield structurally significant information for the characterization and rapid identification of TSN in botanical extracts. The data obtained showed that MS(3) generated more characteristic ions that are useful for the identification of TSN in unknown samples. The separation of TSN was achieved with a water/acetonitrile gradient system using a short C18 reversed-phase column with small particle size (50 x 2.0 mm, 3.5 microm). With LC/MS, the quantitative analysis of TSN in the botanical extracts was done using external standard calibration and the method precision was found to vary from 4.3 to 7.6% (RSD, n = 5) on different days.