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Bain RM, Stutzman JR, Pannuto J, Kane M. Characterization of 2-Butanone Peroxide Oligomeric Profiles and Their Associated Gas-Phase and Solution-Phase Rearrangement Products by Electrospray Ionization Mass Spectrometry for Forensic Applications. JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR MASS SPECTROMETRY 2024; 35:1470-1479. [PMID: 38669013 DOI: 10.1021/jasms.4c00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/04/2024]
Abstract
2-Butanone peroxide (also known as methyl ethyl ketone peroxide, MEKP) has applications as a cross-linker in the chemical industry and is also encountered as a homemade primary high explosive; therefore, it is of interest to both process chemists and forensic examiners. Specifically for forensic applications, we demonstrate that when traditional synthetic procedures, available to any hobbyist, are utilized to generate MEKP, oligomeric peroxide units (n ≤ 12), along with several other oligomeric byproduct distributions, are readily observed by liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry (LC-MS). These oligomeric byproducts correspond to the formation of methyl/ethyl ketone end group(s) at the oligomer end group (i.e., loss of ethanol(s) and/or methanol(s) from the oligomer termini). Based on the interpretation of the MS and MS/MS behavior along with the characterization of newly generated terminal alkyl ketone products, we propose that these byproducts are consistent with a Hock-like rearrangement of the primary MEKP distribution in the acidified reaction medium. Following a procedure for homemade preparation, triplicate lots were synthesized. Unique oligomeric and byproduct distributions provided discriminatory power between the synthetic lots. Furthermore, the distributions of MEKP oligomers and the various byproducts in the initiated MEKP match the intensity distributions observed in the intact material with remarkable accuracy. This observation suggests that the postinitiation residue of MEKP could be associated or dissociated from a separately collected intact material obtained during an investigation by examining these oligomeric and byproduct profiles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ryan M Bain
- The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Ammendale, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - John R Stutzman
- The Dow Chemical Company, Midland, Michigan 48667, United States
| | - Julie Pannuto
- The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Ammendale, Maryland 20705, United States
| | - Meghan Kane
- The Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms and Explosives, Ammendale, Maryland 20705, United States
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2
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Matyáš R, Chýlková J. Study of TATP: Impact of TATP Sublimation on the Content of Residual Acid in TATP Crystals and on TATP's Properties. PROPELLANTS EXPLOSIVES PYROTECHNICS 2020. [DOI: 10.1002/prep.201900375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Robert Matyáš
- Institute of Energetic MaterialsUniversity of Pardubice, Faculty of Chemical Technology Studentska 95 532 10 Pardubice Czech Republic
| | - Jaromíra Chýlková
- Institute of Environmental and Chemical EngineeringUniversity of Pardubice, Faculty of Chemical Technology Studentska 95 532 10 Pardubice Czech Republic
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3
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Almeida Assis AC, Caetano J, Florêncio MH, Cordeiro C. Triacetone triperoxide characterization by FT-ICR mass spectrometry: Uncovering multiple forensic evidence. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 301:37-45. [PMID: 31128407 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.04.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/06/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 04/18/2019] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
Triacetone triperoxide is one of the most common used explosives by terrorist and criminal groups, being easily synthesized with over the counter reagents. Moreover, it's difficult to detect since it contains no nitrogen. Extreme resolution mass spectrometry, based on Fourier transform ion cyclotron resonance mass spectrometry provides a way to established its composition, being able to detect its presence in complex matrixes. In this work, we investigated the detailed chemical composition of triacetone triperoxide and analysed latent fingerprints for evidence of its handling. Our results allowed the characterization of the oligoperoxides formed in the synthesis of triacetone triperoxide: oligomers dihydroperoxy terminated [H(OOC(CH3)2)nOOH] and the oligomeric acetone carbonyl oxides terminated as hydroperoxides [H(O2C(CH3)2)nOOC(O)CH3]. The discrimination between the different synthetic routes using different acid catalysts is possible given the clear differences between the mass spectrum corresponding to each case. Moreover, we identified triacetone triperoxide in latent fingerprints following its manipulation. For criminal investigation, in addition to the unambiguous detection and identification of the explosive, it is of the highest interest to identify the reagents used, who produced it and who used it for criminal purposes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Cristina Almeida Assis
- Laboratório de FT-ICR e Espectrometria de Massa Estrutural, Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal; Laboratório de Polícia Científica da Polícia Judiciária, Portugal.
| | - José Caetano
- EOD
- CBRN Unit/Police Special Unit - Polícia de Segurança Pública, Portugal.
| | - Maria Helena Florêncio
- Laboratório de FT-ICR e Espectrometria de Massa Estrutural, Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Carlos Cordeiro
- Laboratório de FT-ICR e Espectrometria de Massa Estrutural, Centro de Química e Bioquímica, Faculdade de Ciências, Universidade de Lisboa, Portugal.
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4
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Bezemer KDB, Koeberg M, van der Heijden AEDM, van Driel CA, Blaga C, Bruinsma J, van Asten AC. The Potential of Isotope Ratio Mass Spectrometry (IRMS) and Gas Chromatography-IRMS Analysis of Triacetone Triperoxide in Forensic Explosives Investigations. J Forensic Sci 2016; 61:1198-207. [DOI: 10.1111/1556-4029.13135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2015] [Revised: 10/30/2015] [Accepted: 12/19/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Karlijn D. B. Bezemer
- Netherlands Forensic Institute; PO Box 24044 2490 AA The Hague The Netherlands
- Delft University of Technology; PO Box 5 2600 AA Delft The Netherlands
- Faculty of Science; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences; University of Amsterdam; PO Box 94157 1090 GD Amsterdam The Netherlands
| | - Mattijs Koeberg
- Netherlands Forensic Institute; PO Box 24044 2490 AA The Hague The Netherlands
| | - Antoine E. D. M. van der Heijden
- Delft University of Technology; PO Box 5 2600 AA Delft The Netherlands
- TNO Technical Sciences; PO Box 45 2280 AA Rijswijk The Netherlands
| | | | - Cornelia Blaga
- Netherlands Forensic Institute; PO Box 24044 2490 AA The Hague The Netherlands
| | - Jildert Bruinsma
- Netherlands Forensic Institute; PO Box 24044 2490 AA The Hague The Netherlands
| | - Arian C. van Asten
- Netherlands Forensic Institute; PO Box 24044 2490 AA The Hague The Netherlands
- Faculty of Science; Van 't Hoff Institute for Molecular Sciences; University of Amsterdam; PO Box 94157 1090 GD Amsterdam The Netherlands
- CLHC; Amsterdam Center for Forensic Science and Medicine; PO Box 94157 1090 GD Amsterdam The Netherlands
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Hill AR, Edgar M, Chatzigeorgiou M, Reynolds JC, Kelly PF, Creaser CS. Analysis of triacetone triperoxide complexes with alkali metal ions by electrospray and extractive electrospray ionisation combined with ion mobility spectrometry and mass spectrometry. EUROPEAN JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY (CHICHESTER, ENGLAND) 2015; 21:265-274. [PMID: 26307706 DOI: 10.1255/ejms.1348] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
The complexation of triacetone triperoxide (TATP) with a range of alkali metals has been studied by electrospray ionisation-mass spectrometry yield [M+Cat](+) ions for all of the alkali metals. The formation of [2TATP+Li+LiX](+) (X = Br, Cl) sandwich complexes was also observed. Collision cross- sections for the lithium-containing complexes of TATP were measured by travelling wave ion mobility spectrometry mass spectrometry, and compared well with computationally determined structures. Extractive electrospray ionisation (EESI) using a lithium doped electrospray is demonstrated for the detection of TATP vapours desorbed from a metal surface. The limit of detection for EESI was shown to be 20 ng using the [TATP+Li](+) ion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex R Hill
- Centr e for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Mark Edgar
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Maria Chatzigeorgiou
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK. m.chatzigeorgiou- 13@
| | - James C Reynolds
- Centre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Paul F Kelly
- Cent re for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
| | - Colin S Creaser
- C entre for Analytical Science, Department of Chemistry, Loughborough University, Leicestershire, LE11 3TU, UK.
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Mbah J, Knott D, Steward S. Thermogravimetric study of vapor pressure of TATP synthesized without recrystallization. Talanta 2014; 129:586-93. [PMID: 25127637 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2014.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2014] [Revised: 06/14/2014] [Accepted: 06/16/2014] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
This study aims at characterizing the vapor pressure signatures generated by triacetone triperoxide (TATP) that was synthesized without recrystallization by thermogravimmetric analysis (TGA) for exploitation by standoff detection technologies of explosive devices. The thermal behavior of the nonrecrystallized sample was compared with reported values. Any phase change, melting point and decomposition identification were studied by differential scanning calorimeter. Vapor pressures were estimated by the Langmuir method of evaporation from an open surface in a vacuum. Vapor pressures of TATP at different temperatures were calculated using the linear logarithmic relationship obtained from benzoic acid reference standard. Sublimation of TATP was found to follow apparent zero-order kinetics and sublimes at steady rates at 298 K and above. While the enthalpy of sublimation found, 71.7 kJ mol(-1), is in agreement with reported values the vapor pressures deviated significantly. The differences in the vapor pressures behavior are attributable to the synthesis pathway chosen in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan Mbah
- Department of Chemical Engineering, Tuskegee University, Tuskegee, AL 36088, USA.
| | - Debra Knott
- Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division - Explosive Detection Equipment Program, Indian Head, MD 20640, USA
| | - Scott Steward
- Naval Explosive Ordnance Disposal Technology Division - Explosive Detection Equipment Program, Indian Head, MD 20640, USA
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Romolo FS, Cassioli L, Grossi S, Cinelli G, Russo MV. Surface-sampling and analysis of TATP by swabbing and gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Forensic Sci Int 2013; 224:96-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2012.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 11/06/2012] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
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Witkowski B, Gierczak T. Analysis of α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes with electrospray ionization-tandem mass spectrometry (ESI-MS(n)). JOURNAL OF MASS SPECTROMETRY : JMS 2013; 48:79-88. [PMID: 23303750 DOI: 10.1002/jms.3130] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2012] [Revised: 10/17/2012] [Accepted: 10/18/2012] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
A series of α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes was analyzed with direct infusion electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (ESI/MS(n)) as well as liquid chromatography coupled with the mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Standards of α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes were prepared by liquid-phase ozonolysis of cyclohexene in the presence of carboxylic acids. Stabilized Criegee intermediate (SCI), a by-product of the ozone attack on the cyclohexene double bond, reacted with the selected carboxylic acids (SCI scavengers) leading to the formation of α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes. Ionization conditions were optimized. [M + H](+) ions were not formed in ESI; consequently, α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes were identified as their ammonia adducts for the first time. On the other hand, atmospheric-pressure chemical ionization has led to decomposition of the compounds of interest. Analysis of the mass spectra (MS(2) and MS(3)) of the [M + NH(4)](+) ions allowed recognizing the fragmentation pathways, common for all of the compounds under study. In order to get detailed insights into the fragmentation mechanism, a number of isotopically labeled analogs were also studied. To confirm that the fragmentation mechanism allows predicting the mass spectrum of different α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes, ozonolysis of α-pinene, a very important secondary organic aerosol precursor, was carried out. Spectra of the two ammonium cationized α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes prepared with α-pinene, cis-pinonic acid as well as pinic acid were predicted very accurately. Possible applications of the method developed for the analysis of α-acyloxyhydroperoxy aldehydes in SOA samples, as well as other compounds containing hydroperoxide moiety are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bartłomiej Witkowski
- Faculty of Chemistry, University of Warsaw, al. Żwirki i Wigury 101, 02-089, Warsaw, Poland
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MacCrehan W, Moore S, Hancock D. Development of SRM 2907 Trace Terrorist Explosives Simulants for the Detection of Semtex and Triacetone Triperoxide. Anal Chem 2011; 83:9054-9. [DOI: 10.1021/ac201967m] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- William MacCrehan
- Analytical Chemistry Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Stephanie Moore
- Analytical Chemistry Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
| | - Diane Hancock
- Analytical Chemistry Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, Maryland 20899, United States
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11
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Mäkinen M, Nousiainen M, Sillanpää M. Ion spectrometric detection technologies for ultra-traces of explosives: a review. MASS SPECTROMETRY REVIEWS 2011; 30:940-973. [PMID: 21294149 DOI: 10.1002/mas.20308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, explosive materials have been widely employed for various military applications and civilian conflicts; their use for hostile purposes has increased considerably. The detection of different kind of explosive agents has become crucially important for protection of human lives, infrastructures, and properties. Moreover, both the environmental aspects such as the risk of soil and water contamination and health risks related to the release of explosive particles need to be taken into account. For these reasons, there is a growing need to develop analyzing methods which are faster and more sensitive for detecting explosives. The detection techniques of the explosive materials should ideally serve fast real-time analysis in high accuracy and resolution from a minimal quantity of explosive without involving complicated sample preparation. The performance of the in-field analysis of extremely hazardous material has to be user-friendly and safe for operators. The two closely related ion spectrometric methods used in explosive analyses include mass spectrometry (MS) and ion mobility spectrometry (IMS). The four requirements-speed, selectivity, sensitivity, and sampling-are fulfilled with both of these methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marko Mäkinen
- Laboratory of Applied Environmental Chemistry, Department of Environmental Science, University of Eastern Finland, Patteristonkatu 1, 50100 Mikkeli, Finland.
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12
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Moore S, Maccrehan W, Schantz M. Evaluation of vapor profiles of explosives over time using ATASS (Automated Training Aid Simulation using SPME). Forensic Sci Int 2011; 212:90-5. [PMID: 21696900 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2011.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2011] [Revised: 05/10/2011] [Accepted: 05/12/2011] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Despite numerous instrumental achievements, canines are still considered the most effective field method for explosive detection. However, due to strict explosive regulations and safety requirements, it can be a challenge for agencies with "bomb dogs" to train using neat explosive materials. This establishes a need for non-explosive canine training aids with the same volatile component profiles as the explosives that they represent. In order to compare mimic materials to their explosive counterparts, a technique must be established that not only allows for identification of volatile compounds but also can monitor changes in the headspace profile over time with respect to time and temperature. The Automated Training Aid Simulation using SPME (or ATASS) was developed for that purpose. As described, ATASS was used to observe changes in the volatile profile of three explosives (Composition C-4, 2,4-dinitrotoluene (DNT), and triacetone triperoxide (TATP)) and respective prototype training materials (0.1% by mass C-4, 1% by mass 2,4-DNT, and 1% by mass TATP). Samples were prepared in vials and metal tins within a gallon (≈ 3785 mL) paint can to simulate common field techniques for canine training. Monitoring these materials in real time provides a better understanding of the major volatile components present and how the relative abundances of these components can change over time. The results presented indicate that ATASS successfully allows for a sufficient comparison between explosive and non-explosive training materials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Moore
- Analytical Chemistry Division, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MD 20899, United States
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13
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A quantitative chemiluminescent assay for analysis of peroxide-based explosives. Anal Bioanal Chem 2011; 400:313-20. [DOI: 10.1007/s00216-010-4626-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2010] [Revised: 12/10/2010] [Accepted: 12/17/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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14
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Burks RM, Hage DS. Current trends in the detection of peroxide-based explosives. Anal Bioanal Chem 2009; 395:301-13. [PMID: 19644679 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-009-2968-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 67] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/12/2009] [Revised: 06/24/2009] [Accepted: 07/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The increased use of peroxide-based explosives (PBEs) in criminal and terrorist activity has created a demand for continued innovation in the detection of these agents. This review provides an update to a previous 2006 review on the detection of PBEs, with a focus in this report on luminescence and fluorescence methods, infrared and Raman spectroscopy, mass spectrometry, and electrochemical techniques. Newer developments in gas chromatography and high performance liquid chromatography methods are also discussed. One recent trend that is discussed is an emphasis on field measurements through the use of portable instruments or portable assay formats. An increase in the use of infrared spectroscopy and mass spectrometry for PBE analysis is also noted. The analysis of triacetone triperoxide has been the focus in the development of many of these methods, although hexamethylene triperoxide diamine has received increased attention in PBE detection during the last few years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raychelle M Burks
- Department of Chemistry, University of Nebraska, 704 Hamilton Hall, Lincoln, NE 68588-0304, USA
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