Rapid screening and determination of 11 new psychoactive substances by direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography/quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry

Analysis of drugs seized from amnesty bins at two major United Kingdom summer music festivals using two portable gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) instruments

Globally, the number of drug users and the proportion of the drug using population has increased from 210 million in 2009 to 269 million in 2019. Several studies suggest that music festival attendees are more likely to abuse illicit substances and have a high-risk profile. Consequently, it is crucial to develop robust field drug analysis methods that facilitate harm reduction and drug monitoring. The work presented in this report aimed at developing and validating qualitative analytical methods for 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, 4-bromo-2,5-dimethoxyphenethylamine (2C-B), ketamine and N-ethylpentylone on two portable gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS) systems: Griffin G510 (Teledyne FLIR, West Lafayette, IN) and Torion T-9 (PerkinElmer, Shelton, CT). The diagnostic ability of the mobile GC-MS units was assessed on 200 samples in total, seized at two large summer music festivals in the United Kingdom. The method validation process included selectivity/specificity, limit of identification, carry-over, ruggedness/robustness, and inter- and intra-day precision (repeatability and reproducibility). The Griffin G510 demonstrated a limit of identification from 1 mg/mL for 2C-B to 0.063 mg/mL for ketamine and good ruggedness and precision results. The precision for 2C-B using the Torion T-9 was poorer than for the Griffin G510, but equivalent for the other compounds tested. Correct identifications (versus benchtop GC-MS) for the two festivals were 85%-86% and 74%-83% for the Griffin G510 and the Torion T-9, respectively. The two portable instruments were able to adequately cover current on-site drug-testing analytical gaps and proved to be a powerful addition to the on-site drug analysis techniques.

Development of a rapid-fire drug screening method by probe electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry for human urine (RaDPi-U)

Drug screening tests are mandatory in the search for drugs in forensic biological samples, and immunological methods and mass spectrometry (e.g., gas chromatography-mass spectrometry and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry) are commonly used for that purpose. However, these methods have some drawbacks, and developing new screening methods is required. In this study, we develop a rapid-fire drug screening method by probe electrospray ionization tandem mass spectrometry (PESI-MS/MS), which is an ambient ionization mass spectrometry method, for human urine, named RaDPi-U. RaDPi-U is carried out in three steps: (1) mixing urine with internal standard (IS) solution and ethanol, followed by vortexing; (2) pipetting the mixture onto a sample plate for PESI; and (3) rapid-fire analysis by PESI-MS/MS. RaDPi-U targets 40 forensically important drugs, which include illegal drugs, hypnotics, and psychoactive substances. The analytical results were obtained within 3 min because of the above-mentioned simple workflow of RaDPi-U. The calibration curves of each analyte were constructed using the IS method, and they were quantitatively valid, resulting in good linearity (0.972-0.999) with a satisfactory lower limit of detection and lower limit of quantitation (0.01-7.1 ng/mL and 0.02-21 ng/mL, respectively). Further, both trueness and precisions were 28% or less, demonstrating the high reliability and repeatability of the method. Finally, we applied RaDPi-U to three postmortem urine specimens and successfully detected different drugs in each urine sample. The practicality of the method is proven, and RaDPi-U will be a strong tool as a rapid-fire drug screening method not only in forensic toxicology but also in clinical toxicology.

A simple, quick and non-destructive approach for sampling drugs of abuse in tablets and blotter for qualitative analysis by paper spray mass spectrometry

This study presents the development of a simple, fast, and inexpensive approach for the direct analysis of new psychoactive substances (NPS) in seized tablets and blotter paper, with improved sample preservation and increased analytical frequency. Paper triangles were gently rubbed against the surface of the samples containing synthetic drugs and then subjected to analysis by paper spray ionization mass spectrometry (PS-MS). Seized samples containing lysergic acid diethylamide (LSD) and several other substances from the classes of amphetamines, N-benzyl-substituted phenethylamines, synthetic cathinones, and synthetic cannabinoids, were analysed. Three types of paper were tested (filter paper, blotter paper, and synthetic paper) and several combinations of spray solvents were studied for the optimization. All samples were weighed and photographed before and after sequences of analysis in order to attest to the sample preservation. The results revealed that the approach is excellent for sample preservation, with less than 5% of mass loss even after 27 consecutive analyses. Moreover, no significant signal decreases were observed in mass spectrometry (MS) even after the experiments. It was possible to unequivocally identify illicit substances from seized samples (pills and blotter paper). By overcoming the solubilization and wet extraction process used for sample preparation, the waste was restricted to a volume of only 10 μL of solvent for the PS-MS analysis. The main advantage of our approach over existing methods is the sample preparation, which is simple and quick since the samples are just rubbed against the PS paper. This brings enormous benefits in terms of analytical frequency, economy of time and low consumption of solvents. Another important point is that the sample can remain intact for further analysis, which is crucial in forensic analysis.

Swab-in-Capillary Electrospray Ionization and a Miniature Mass Spectrometer for In Situ Drug Analysis

In situ analysis of drugs has been in increasing demand in many fields. As an updated version of capillary-in-capillary electrospray ionization (CC-ESI) developed previously, a disposable swab-in-capillary electrospray ionization (SC-ESI) source was designed in this study. With a micro medical swab for sampling and an integrated filter membrane for online filtration, SC-ESI was able to directly sample and MS analyze complex samples without the need for pretreatment. Coupled with a miniature mass spectrometer, SC-ESI was applied for direct analysis of effective ingredients in therapeutic drugs (in tablet, capsule, and liquid droplet) and drugs in saliva and quantitation of therapeutic drugs in blood. The limits of detection in absolute amounts were obtained as 1 ng for fentanyl and 0.5 ng for cocaine in saliva. Combining with an internal standard method, SC-ESI acquired linear quantitation ranges of 100-5000 ng/mL for imatinib in whole blood and 100-2000 ng/mL for clozapine in serum with high accuracies and precisions. The entire analysis process, from sampling to data acquisition, can be completed in less than 2 min. As demonstrated as a cheap, portable, and sampling-effective ionization source, SC-ESI has shown great potential for in situ drug analysis, especially in border drug screening and clinical therapeutic drug monitoring.

Direct analysis in real-time tandem mass spectrometry method for the rapid screening of 11 new psychoactive substances in blood and urine

RATIONALE

With the continuous renewal of new psychoactive substances (NPS), the abuse of NPS has seriously harmed social security and public safety. The number of deaths from the abuse of NPS is increasing year by year. Therefore, there is an immediate need to develop an effective method for detecting NPS.

METHODS

Direct analysis in real-time tandem mass spectrometry (DART-MS/MS) was used to detect 11 NPS in blood and urine. The temperature of the ion source was optimized and set to 400°C. The mixture solvent of acetonitrile/methanol (4:1, v/v) was used as the precipitant. SKF-525 (2-(diethylamino)ethyl 2,2-diphenylpentanoate) was selected as the internal standard for quantification. After the pretreatment of the analytes in blood or urine, the supernatant was prepared for instrumental analysis.

RESULTS

The results indicated that the correlation coefficients (r2 ) of all analytes ranged from 0.99 to 1 in the linear range. The recoveries of 11 analytes at three spiked levels ranged between 83.4% and 110.4% in blood and between 81.7% and 108.5% in urine. The matrix effects of 11 analytes ranged between 79.5% and 109.5% in blood and between 85.0% and 109.4% in urine. The relative standard deviations of intra-day and inter-day precisions and repeatability were lower than 12.4%, 14.1%, and 14.3% in blood and lower than 11.4%, 13.9%, and 14.3% in urine, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The method established for the detection of 11 NPS could meet the needs for the rapid screening of NPS samples. The DART-MS/MS method has the advantages of being efficient, fast, and green. Therefore, it may become a promising technology for the detection of NPS in the future.

Ambient ionization mass spectrometry applied to new psychoactive substance analysis

In the past decade a plethora of drugs with similar effects to controlled psychoactive drugs, like cannabis, amfetamine (amphetamine), or lysergic acid diethylamide, have been synthesized. These drugs can collectively be classified under the term new psychoactive substances (NPS) and are used for recreational purposes. The novelty of the substances, alongside the rapid rate of emergence and structural variability, makes their detection as well as their legal control highly challenging, increasing the demand for rapid and easy-to-use analytical techniques for their detection and identification. Therefore, interest in ambient ionization mass spectrometry applied to NPS has grown in recent years, which is largely because it is relatively fast and simple to use and has a low operating cost. This review aims to provide a critique of the suitability of current ambient ionization techniques for the analysis of NPS in the forensic and clinical toxicology fields. Consideration is given to analytical performance and ease of implementation, including ionization efficiency, selectivity, sensitivity, quantification, analyte chemistry, molecular coverage, validation, and practicality.

Ambient Ionization Mass Spectrometry: Application and Prospective

Mass spectrometry (MS) is a formidable analytical tool for the analysis of non-polar to polar compounds individually and/or from mixtures, providing information on the molecular weights and chemical structures of the analytes. During the last more than one-decade, ambient ionization mass spectrometry (AIMS) has developed quickly, producing a wide range of platforms and proving scientific improvements in a variety of domains, from biological imaging to quick quality control. These methods have made it possible to detect target analytes in real time without sample preparation in an open environment, and they can be connected to any MS system with an atmospheric pressure interface. They also have the ability to analyze explosives, illicit drugs, disease diagnostics, drugs in biological samples, adulterants in food and agricultural products, reaction progress, and environmental monitoring. The development of novel ambient ionization techniques, such as probe electrospray ionization, paper spray ionization, and fiber spray ionization, employed even at picolitre to femtolitre solution levels to provide femtogram to attogram levels of the target analytes. The special characteristic of this ambient ion source, which has been extensively used, is the noninvasive property of PESI of examination of biological real samples. The results in the current review supports the idea that AIMS has emerged as a pioneer in MS-based approaches and that methods will continue to be developed along with improvements to existing ones in the near future.

Rapid detection of nine synthetic cathinones in blood and urine by direct analysis in real-time-tandem mass spectrometry

RATIONALE

Designer drugs of cathinone, a kind of hallucinogen, were abused in the recent years. They were also known as bath salts, plant fertilizers, and zombie potions in drug market. The abuse of synthetic cathinones caused many bad effects on social order. Rapid detection of synthetic cathinones became an important subject of study in forensic science.

METHODS

Direct analysis in real-time-tandem mass spectrometry (DART-MS/MS) was used to develop an effective method on nine synthetic cathinones in human whole blood and urine. The reference materials with 100 ng/mL were prepared for mass spectrometry optimization with electrospray ionization (ESI) probe tandem QTRAP 4000 mass spectrometer. The temperature of DART ion source was optimized to 400°C. The volumes of 4/1 (v/v) MeCN/MeOH with 0.69 mL were selected for the preparation of 0.31 mL blood and urine samples, respectively. Then the spiked analytes were prepared for detection by the DART 12Dip-it autosampler module.

RESULTS

The results showed that the linearities range between 0.1 and 5 μg/mL, the correlation coefficients (r² ) ranged from 0.99 to 1, the limits of detection (LODs) were all between 0.5 and 50 ng/mL, and the relative standard deviations (RSDs) of repeatability, intra-day and inter-day precisions were all below 13% and 14% in blood and urine, respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results indicated that the method could meet the needs of rapid screening of samples that may contain synthetic cathinones. In addition, the method developed has many advantages, such as efficient, fast sample preparation, and environmental protection. Therefore, the DART-MS/MS method would provide effective data support for rapid screening of synthetic cathinones in forensic science.

The key role of mass spectrometry in comprehensive research on new psychoactive substances

New psychoactive substances (NPS) are a wide group of compounds that try to mimic the effects produced by the 'classical' illicit drugs, including cannabis (synthetic cannabinoids), cocaine and amphetamines (synthetic cathinones) or heroin (synthetic opioids), and which health effects are still unknown for most of them. Nowadays, more than 700 compounds are being monitored by official organisms, some of which have been recently identified in seizures and/or intoxication cases. Toxicological analysis plays a pivotal role in NPS research. A comprehensive investigation on NPS, from the first identification of a novel substance until its detection in drug users to help in diagnostics and medical treatment, requires the use of a wide variety of instruments and analytical strategies. This paper illustrates the key role of mass spectrometry (MS) along a comprehensive investigation on NPS. The synthetic cannabinoid XLR-11 and the synthetic cathinone 5-PPDi have been chosen as representative substances of the most consumed NPS families. Moreover, both compounds have been investigated at our laboratory in different stages of the three-step strategy considered in this article. The initial identification and characterisation of the compound in consumption products, the first reported metabolic pathway and the development of analytical methodologies for its determination (and/or their metabolites) in different toxicological samples are described. The analytical strategies and MS instruments are briefly discussed to show the reader the possibilities that MS instrumentation offer to analytical scientists. This publication aims to be a starting point for those interested on the NPS research field from an analytical chemistry point of view.

Roadside Drug Testing Approaches

The purpose of this review is to present an overview of roadside drug testing, driving enforcement, and drunk/drug driving detection around the world. Drunk and drug driving is a severe problem, not only in the UAE, but also around the world. This has important implications for road safety as drunk or drug driving may increase the chances of a driver’s involvement in a road crash when compared to a drug-free driver. Recently, due to increases in drug-impaired drivers’ crash involvement, many mobile roadside drug testing devices have been introduced to the market. These devices use oral fluid, urine or blood matrices. These are on-the-spot tests, which are easy to use and are applied by law enforcement agencies and the public. Law enforcement agencies most commonly use oral fluid to detect the presence of illicit drugs in drivers. This review discusses all the available devices in the market used by the authorities. It also describes the type of drugs widely abused by drivers along with behavioral testing methods. The different types of matrices used for roadside drug testing are also evaluated. Sample collection, storage, and pre-treatment methods are discussed, followed by the confirmatory analysis of positive samples. This article will significantly help law enforcement agencies compare and evaluate all the reliable roadside testing devices and new emerging confirmatory devices available to them in the market. This will help them make an informed decision on which device to adapt to their individual needs.

Forensic applications of DART-MS: A review of recent literature

The need for rapid chemical analyses and new analytical tools in forensic laboratories continues to grow due to case backlogs, difficult-to-analyze cases, and identification of previously unseen materials such as new psychoactive substances. To adapt to these needs, the forensics community has been pursuing the use of ambient ionization mass spectrometry, and more specifically direct analysis in real time mass spectrometry (DART-MS), for a wide range of applications. From the inception of DART-MS forensic applications have been researched with demonstrations ranging from drugs of abuse to inorganic gunshot residue to printer inks to insect identification. This article presents a review of research demonstrating the use of DART-MS for forensically relevant samples over the past five years. To provide more context, background on the technique, sampling approaches, and data analysis methods are presented along with a discussion on the potential future and research needs of the technology.

Solvent-free, Noncontact Electrostatic Sampling for Rapid Analysis with Mass Spectrometry: Application to Drugs and Explosives

A hand-held Van de Graaf generator is used to apply a high voltage, negligible current electrostatic potential to a wire mesh positioned in close proximity to a particle-laden surface in order to collect those particles for analysis. The electrostatic field effects transfer particles to the mesh without a requirement for mechanical contact between mesh and surface. Analysis of chemicals present in the sampled particles is completed by thermal desorption electrospray ionization. The utility of the method for noncontact sampling is demonstrated using solid drug powder samples, and inorganic explosives dispersed either on solid surfaces or in sand/soil in order to simulate common interfering matrices that might be encountered in the forensic environment. A metal mesh sampling substrate is utilized instead of traditional polymer-based swabs in order to permit thermal desorption at higher temperatures. The method leaves no visible trace of sampling leaving details such as a fingerprint image unperturbed, as demonstrated using fluorescence photography. Direct sampling of trace particles from hard surfaces and skin documents flexibility in the choice of sampling substrates, desorption temperatures, and sampling times. The potential of the device for use in forensic analyses is detailed.

MASS SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS OF DRUGS OF ABUSE: CHALLENGES AND EMERGING STRATEGIES

Mass spectrometry has been the "gold standard" for drugs of abuse (DoA) analysis for many decades because of the selectivity and sensitivity it affords. Recent progress in all aspects of mass spectrometry has seen significant developments in the field of DoA analysis. Mass spectrometry is particularly well suited to address the rapidly proliferating number of very high potency, novel psychoactive substances that are causing an alarming number of fatalities worldwide. This review surveys advancements in the areas of sample preparation, gas and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, as well as the rapidly emerging field of ambient ionization mass spectrometry. We have predominantly targeted literature progress over the past ten years and present our outlook for the future. © 2020 Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev.

Direct and Fast Screening of New Psychoactive Substances Using Medical Swabs and Atmospheric Solids Analysis Probe Triple Quadrupole with Data-Dependent Acquisition

New psychoactive substances (NPS) have become a serious public health problem, as they are continuously changing their structures and modifying their potency and effects on humans, and therefore, novel compounds are unceasingly appearing. One of the major challenges in forensic analysis, particularly related to the problem of NPS, is the development of fast screening methodologies that allow the detection of a wide variety of compounds in a single analysis. In this study, a novel application of the atmospheric solids analysis probe (ASAP) using medical swabs has been developed. The swab-ASAP was coupled to a triple quadrupole mass analyzer working under a data-dependent acquisition mode in order to perform a suspect screening of NPS in different types of samples as well as on surfaces. The compounds were automatically identified based on the observed fragmentation spectra using an in-house built MS/MS spectra library. The developed methodology was applied for the identification of psychoactive substances in research chemicals and herbal blends. The sensitivity of the method, as well as its applicability for surface analysis, was also assessed by identifying down to 1 μg of compound impregnated onto a laboratory table. Another remarkable application was the identification of cathinones and synthetic cannabinoids on the fingers of potential consumers. Interestingly, our data showed that NPS could be identified on the fingers after being in contact with the product and even after cleaning their hands by shaking off with a cloth. The methodology proposed in this paper can be applied for routine analyses of NPS in different matrix samples without the need to establish a list of target compounds prior to analysis.

Interpol review of controlled substances 2016-2019

This review paper covers the forensic-relevant literature in controlled substances from 2016 to 2019 as a part of the 19th Interpol International Forensic Science Managers Symposium. The review papers are also available at the Interpol website at: https://www.interpol.int/content/download/14458/file/Interpol%20Review%20Papers%202019.pdf.

Analysis of Fragmentation Pathways of New-Type Synthetic Cannabinoids Using Electrospray Ionization

Recently, dozens of new psychoactive substances have appeared on the European drug market every year. The most abundant group of these compounds is synthetic cannabinoids. In the first few years of the "legal highs" phenomenon, JWH (John W. Huffman) compounds were especially popular among drug users. However, the group of synthetic cannabinoids is constantly expanding, as new compounds are created by replacing known structural elements with different chemical groups. The problem with the identification of novel substances in forensic laboratories results from the structural similarity of the compounds and the rapid introduction of newer designer drugs on the black market. In this study, the fragmentation patterns of 29 new-type synthetic cannabinoids using electrospray ionization were investigated. The analysis was performed using quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry. Based on measurements carried out under various conditions, the way of fragmentation of the tested compounds that were divided into groups due to their chemical structure was established. The study showed that the bond between the carbon atom of the carbonyl group and the ring or NH group attached to the ring was mainly cleaved. This mechanism was adequate for the fragmentation of first-generation synthetic cannabinoids. This paper presents characteristic ions formed by synthetic cannabinoids (i.e., ions originating from an indole/indazole ring and an adamanyl/naphthalene/quinoline ring) using electrospray ionization. Knowledge of these specific fragments can be used in forensic laboratories to determine the structure of novel compounds from the group of synthetic cannabinoids. Graphical Abstract ᅟ.

A comparison of single quadrupole mass detection and diode array ultraviolet detection interfaced to ultra-high performance supercritical chromatography for the quantitative analysis of synthetic cathinones

A comparison of single quadruple mass spectrometry and diode array-ultraviolet (PDA-UV) detection interfaced to ultra-high performance supercritical fluid chromatography was performed for the quantitative analysis of synthetic cathinones. Synthetic cathinones, also known as "bath salts", are derived from cathinone, a component of the khat plant. For 15 controlled solutes linearity, repeatability, and limits of detection were determined using both UV and MS detection. Quantitation studies were performed using the above detectors for 19 mixtures of up to 4 of the above compounds with an adulterant to simulate seized samples. MS detection provided approximately an order of magnitude greater linearity range and allowed for two to three orders of magnitude lower limits of detection than UV detection. Both detection techniques exhibited similar results of analysis and comparable repeatability. The latter detection mode which provided significantly high linearity correlation coefficients (0.9994 ≤ R2 ≤ 1.0000) would be preferred for quantitative analysis.

Use of LC-HRMS in full scan-XIC mode for multi-analyte urine drug testing - a step towards a 'black-box' solution?

The influx of new psychoactive substances (NPS) has created a need for improved methods for drug testing in toxicology laboratories. The aim of this work was to design, validate and apply a multi-analyte liquid chromatography-high-resolution mass spectrometry (LC-HRMS) method for screening of 148 target analytes belonging to the NPS class, plant alkaloids and new psychoactive therapeutic drugs. The analytical method used a fivefold dilution of urine with nine deuterated internal standards and injection of 2 μl. The LC system involved a 2.0 μm 100 × 2.0 mm YMC-UltraHT Hydrosphere-C₁₈ column and gradient elution with a flow rate of 0.5 ml/min and a total analysis time of 6.0 min. Solvent A consisted of 10 mmol/l ammonium formate and 0.005% formic acid, pH 4.8, and Solvent B was methanol with 10 mmol/l ammonium formate and 0.005% formic acid. The HRMS (Q Exactive, Thermo Scientific) used a heated electrospray interface and was operated in positive mode with 70 000 resolution. The scan range was 100-650 Da, and data for extracted ion chromatograms used ± 10 ppm tolerance. Product ion monitoring was applied for confirmation analysis and for some selected analytes also for screening. Method validation demonstrated limited influence from urine matrix, linear response within the measuring range (typically 0.1-1.0 μg/ml) and acceptable imprecision in quantification (CV <15%). A few analytes were found to be unstable in urine upon storage. The method was successfully applied for routine drug testing of 17 936 unknown samples, of which 2715 (15%) contained 52 of the 148 analytes. It is concluded that the method design based on simple dilution of urine and using LC-HRMS in extracted ion chromatogram mode may offer an analytical system for urine drug testing that fulfils the requirement of a 'black box' solution and can replace immunochemical screening applied on autoanalyzers. Copyright © 2017 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Identification of Eight Synthetic Cannabinoids, Including 5F-AKB48 in Seized Herbal Products Using DART-TOF-MS and LC-QTOF-MS as Nontargeted Screening Methods

Synthetic cannabinoids are sprayed onto plant material and smoked for their marijuana-like effects. Clandestine manufacturers modify synthetic cannabinoid structures by creating closely related analogs. Forensic laboratories are tasked with detection of these analog compounds, but targeted analytical methods are often thwarted by the structural modifications. Here, direct analysis in real time coupled to accurate mass time-of-flight mass spectrometry (DART-TOF-MS) in combination with liquid chromatography quadruple time-of-flight mass spectrometry (LC-QTOF-MS) are presented as a screening and nontargeted confirmation method, respectively. Methanol extracts of herbal material were run using both methods. Spectral data from four different herbal products were evaluated by comparing fragmentation pattern, accurate mass and retention time to available reference standards. JWH-018, JWH-019, AM2201, JWH-122, 5F-AKB48, AKB48-N-(4-pentenyl) analog, UR144, and XLR11 were identified in the products. Results demonstrate that DART-TOF-MS affords a useful approach for rapid screening of herbal products for the presence and identification of synthetic cannabinoids.