1
|
Borden SA, Palaty J, Termopoli V, Famiglini G, Cappiello A, Gill CG, Palma P. MASS SPECTROMETRY ANALYSIS OF DRUGS OF ABUSE: CHALLENGES AND EMERGING STRATEGIES. Mass Spectrom Rev 2020; 39:703-744. [PMID: 32048319 DOI: 10.1002/mas.21624] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2019] [Accepted: 01/22/2020] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
Mass spectrometry has been the "gold standard" for drugs of abuse (DoA) analysis for many decades because of the selectivity and sensitivity it affords. Recent progress in all aspects of mass spectrometry has seen significant developments in the field of DoA analysis. Mass spectrometry is particularly well suited to address the rapidly proliferating number of very high potency, novel psychoactive substances that are causing an alarming number of fatalities worldwide. This review surveys advancements in the areas of sample preparation, gas and liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry, as well as the rapidly emerging field of ambient ionization mass spectrometry. We have predominantly targeted literature progress over the past ten years and present our outlook for the future. © 2020 Periodicals, Inc. Mass Spec Rev.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Borden
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
| | - Jan Palaty
- LifeLabs Medical Laboratories, Burnaby, BC, V3W 1H8, Canada
| | - Veronica Termopoli
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Giorgio Famiglini
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Achille Cappiello
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| | - Chris G Gill
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, University of Victoria, Victoria, BC, V8P 5C2, Canada
- Department of Chemistry, Simon Fraser University, Burnaby, BC, V5A 1S6, Canada
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health Sciences, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98195
| | - Pierangela Palma
- Applied Environmental Research Laboratories (AERL), Department of Chemistry, Vancouver Island University, Nanaimo, BC, V9R 5S5, Canada
- LC-MS Laboratory, Department of Pure and Applied Sciences, University of Urbino Carlo Bo, 61029, Urbino, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Mendoza-Valencia CY, Mariño Gaviria DJ, Patiño Reyes N, Lopez-Vallejo F, Sarmiento Gutiérrez ÁE, Trespalacios Rodríguez D. Mix of new substances psychoactive, NPS, found in blotters sold in two Colombian cities. Forensic Sci Int 2019; 304:109969. [PMID: 31593907 DOI: 10.1016/j.forsciint.2019.109969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2019] [Revised: 09/20/2019] [Accepted: 09/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
The new psychoactive substances (NPS) in Colombia are detected by national authorities, in blotters strip, in different circumstances and places: airports, music concerts, discos and parks. Blotters are marketed as LSD and cause several cases of intoxication and death in some consumers: due to acute intoxication or when mixed with other drugs and may have different effects on the central nervous system (CNS). This study was conducted to research into and identify the chemical composition of the drugs impregnated in the blotters sold in two Colombian cities. This research provides the analysis of 70 doses coming from forensic cases of the Colombian Attorney General's Office in Bogota and from the Laboratory of Narcotics of the Colombian National Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Sciences (North Headquarter) in Barranquilla. Mixtures of drugs, such as DOB, 25I-NBOMe, MDMA and 25I-NBOMe imine were found within the blotters through gas chromatography coupled to mass spectrometry (CGMS); these drugs are classified by international authorities as NPS belonging to the phenylethylamines group. The results clearly warn about a growing public health problem in the country.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
| | - Diana Jazmín Mariño Gaviria
- Toxicology Laboratory Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses Regional Bogotá. Calle 7 A # 12 A - 51 Bogotá, 110321, Colombia.
| | - Nancy Patiño Reyes
- Department of Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 45 # 26 - 85 Edif. Uriel Gutiérrez, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia.
| | - Fabian Lopez-Vallejo
- Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Sciences, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Carrera 45 # 26 - 85 Edif. Uriel Gutiérrez, 111321 Bogotá, Colombia.
| | - Álvaro Emilio Sarmiento Gutiérrez
- Forensic Sciences Regional Group of the Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses (Regional Norte), Carrera 23 # 53 - 56 Barranquilla, 080012, Colombia.
| | - Daniel Trespalacios Rodríguez
- Toxicology Laboratory, Instituto Nacional de Medicina Legal y Ciencias Forenses (Regional Norte). Carrera 23 # 53 - 56 Barranquilla, 080012, Colombia.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Yen YT, Chen TY, Chen CY, Chang CL, Chyueh SC, Chang HT. A Photoluminescent Colorimetric Probe of Bovine Serum Albumin-Stabilized Gold Nanoclusters for New Psychoactive Substances: Cathinone Drugs in Seized Street Samples. Sensors (Basel) 2019; 19:E3554. [PMID: 31443204 PMCID: PMC6721205 DOI: 10.3390/s19163554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Revised: 08/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Screening of illicit drugs for new psychoactive substances-namely cathinone-at crime scenes is in high demand. A dual-emission bovine serum albumin-stabilized gold nanoclusters probe was synthesized and used for quantitation and screening of 4-chloromethcathinone and cathinone analogues in an aqueous solution. The photoluminescent (PL) color of the bovine serum albumin-stabilized Au nanoclusters (BSA-Au NCs) probe solution changed from red to dark blue during the identification of cathinone drugs when excited using a portable ultraviolet light-emitting diodes lamp (365 nm). This probe solution allows the PL color-changing point and limit of detection down to 10.0 and 0.14 mM, respectively, for 4-chloromethcathinone. The phenomenon of PL color-changing of BSA-Au NCs was attributed to its PL band at 650 nm, quenching through an electron transfer mechanism. The probe solution was highly specific to cathinone drugs, over other popular illicit drugs, including heroin, cocaine, ketamine, and methamphetamine. The practicality of this BSA-Au NCs probe was assessed by using it to screen illicit drugs seized by law enforcement officers. All 20 actual cases from street and smuggling samples were validated using this BSA-Au NCs probe solution and then confirmed using gas chromatography-mass spectrometry. The results reveal this BSA-Au NCs probe solution is practical for screening cathinone drugs at crime scenes.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yao-Te Yen
- Department of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau, Xindian District, New Taipei City 23149, Taiwan.
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan.
| | - Ting-Yueh Chen
- Department of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau, Xindian District, New Taipei City 23149, Taiwan
| | - Chun-Yu Chen
- Department of Chemistry, National Cheng-Kung University, Tainan 70101, Taiwan
| | - Chi-Lun Chang
- Department of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau, Xindian District, New Taipei City 23149, Taiwan
| | - San-Chong Chyueh
- Department of Forensic Science, Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau, Xindian District, New Taipei City 23149, Taiwan
| | - Huan-Tsung Chang
- Department of Chemistry, National Taiwan University, Taipei 10617, Taiwan
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Seyyal E, Evans-Nguyen T. Online Sol-gel Capillary Microextraction-Mass Spectrometry (CME-MS) Analysis of Illicit Drugs. J Am Soc Mass Spectrom 2019; 30:595-604. [PMID: 30796621 DOI: 10.1007/s13361-018-02127-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2018] [Revised: 12/14/2018] [Accepted: 12/15/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
Providing rapid and sensitive sample cleanup, sol-gel capillary microextraction (CME) is a form of solid phase microextraction (SPME). The capillary format of CME couples easily with mass spectrometry (MS) by employing sol-gel sorbent coatings in inexpensive fused silica capillaries. By leveraging the syringe pump and six-port valve readily available on the commercial MS, we can obviate the need for chromatography for samples as complex as urine in quantitative assays. Two different sol-gel materials were studied as microextraction sorbents: one with a single ligand of octadecyl (C18) and the other with a dual-ligand combination of C18 and phenyl (Phe) groups. The CME-MS method was optimized for flow rate and solvent desorption and studied for overall microextraction performance between the two sorbents studied. We extract illicit drugs including cocaine, heroin, amphetamine, methamphetamine, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine, and oxycodone, proving good run-to-run reproducibility (RSD% < 10%) and low detection limits (< 10 ng mL-1). The dual-ligand sorbent demonstrated superior performance due to typical hydrophobic properties of C18 as well as potential π-π interactions of the Phe functionality and the aromatic moiety common to many drugs. This study demonstrates the advantage of fine-tuning sol-gel sorbents for application-specific CME-MS. We apply our method to the analysis of various drugs in synthetic and human urine samples and show low carryover effect (~ 5%) and low matrix effect in the presence of the urine matrix. Thus, the sol-gel CME-MS technique described herein stands to be an attractive alternative to other SPME-MS techniques.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Emre Seyyal
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, CHE 205, Tampa, FL, 33620-5250, USA
| | - Theresa Evans-Nguyen
- Department of Chemistry, University of South Florida, 4202 E. Fowler Avenue, CHE 205, Tampa, FL, 33620-5250, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Benítez G, March-Salas M, Villa-Kamel A, Cháves-Jiménez U, Hernández J, Montes-Osuna N, Moreno-Chocano J, Cariñanos P. The genus Datura L. (Solanaceae) in Mexico and Spain - Ethnobotanical perspective at the interface of medical and illicit uses. J Ethnopharmacol 2018; 219:133-151. [PMID: 29551452 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2017] [Revised: 03/06/2018] [Accepted: 03/06/2018] [Indexed: 05/06/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE The different species of the genus Datura have been used traditionally by some pre-Columbian civilizations, as well as in medieval rituals linked to magic and witchcraft in both Mexico and Europe. It is also noteworthy the use of different alkaloids obtained from the plants for medicinal purposes in the treatment of various groups of diseases, especially of the respiratory and muscularskeletal systems. AIM OF THE STUDY A review of the ethnobotanical uses of the genus Datura in Mexico and Spain has been conducted. We focus on the medicinal and ritualistic uses included in modern ethnobotanical studies, emphasizing the historical knowledge from post-colonial American Codices and medieval European texts. Datura's current social emergency as a drug of recreation and leisure, as well as its link to crimes of sexual abuse is also considered. The work is completed with some notes about the distribution and ecology of the different species and a phytochemical and pharmacological review of Datura alkaloids, necessary to understand their arrival in Europe and the ethnobotanical uses made since then MATERIALS AND METHODS: A literature review and compilation of information on traditional medicinal uses of the genus has been carried out from the main electronic databases. Traditional volumes (codices) have also been consulted in libraries of different institutions. Consultations have been made with the National Toxicological Services of Spain and Mexico for toxicological data. RESULTS A total of 118 traditional uses were collected in both territories, 111 medicinal ones to be applied in 76 conditions or symptoms included in 13 pathological groups. Although there are particular medicinal uses in the two countries, we found up to 15 similar uses, of which 80% were previously mentioned in post-Colonial American codices. Applications in the treatment of asthma and rheumatism are also highlighted. Apart from medicinal uses, it is worth noting their cultural and social uses, in the case of Mexico relating to diseases such as being scared, astonishment or falling in love, and in the case of Spain, as a recreational drug and lately, for criminal purposes. CONCLUSIONS This review highlights the variety of uses traditionally given to the different species in both territories. The fact that most of the coincident or similar uses in both countries also appear in the classical codices can be found an example of the flow, not only of the plants from America to Europe, but also of their associated information. It is also relevant that particular uses have derived in both countries, reflecting the difference in the cultural factors and traditions linked to rituals and cultural practices. Finally, the significant growth of Datura consumption in recent years as a drug of leisure and recreation, as well as in crimes of sexual submission, should be considered as research of maximum relevance in the field of forensic botany and toxicology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Guillermo Benítez
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Martí March-Salas
- National Museum of Natural Sciences of Madrid (MNCN-CSIC), E-28006 Madrid, Spain.
| | - Alberto Villa-Kamel
- Ethnobotany Laboratory, National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), 14030 Mexico , Mexico.
| | - Ulises Cháves-Jiménez
- Ethnobotany Laboratory, National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), 14030 Mexico , Mexico.
| | - Javier Hernández
- Ethnobotany Laboratory, National School of Anthropology and History (ENAH), 14030 Mexico , Mexico.
| | - Nuria Montes-Osuna
- Department of Crop Protection, Institute of Sustainable Agriculture, Superior Council of Scientific Investigations (CSIC), Campus Alameda del Obispo, E-14004 Córdoba, Spain.
| | - Joaquín Moreno-Chocano
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
| | - Paloma Cariñanos
- Department of Botany, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Granada, Campus de Cartuja, E-18071 Granada, Spain; Andalusian Institute for Earth System Research (IISTA-CEAMA), University of Granada, E-18071 Granada, Spain.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Wilkinson JL, Hooda PS, Swinden J, Barker J, Barton S. Spatial (bio)accumulation of pharmaceuticals, illicit drugs, plasticisers, perfluorinated compounds and metabolites in river sediment, aquatic plants and benthic organisms. Environ Pollut 2018; 234:864-875. [PMID: 29248854 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2017.11.090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 11/27/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Organic contaminants such as pharmaceuticals, personal care products (PPCPs) and other emerging contaminants (ECs) are known to persist in the aquatic environment and many are indicated as endocrine, epigenetic, or other toxicants. Typically, the study of PPCPs/ECs in the aquatic environment is limited to their occurrence dissolved in river water. In this study, accumulation and spatial distribution of thirteen PPCPs/ECs were assessed in aquatic sediment (n = 23), periphyton (biofilm, n = 8), plants Callitriche sp. (n = 8) and Potamogeton sp. (n = 7) as well as amphipod crustaceans (Gammarus pulex, n = 10) and aquatic snails (Bithynia tentaculata, n = 9). All samples (n = 65) were collected from the Hogsmill, Blackwater and Bourne Rivers in southern England. Targeted PPCPs/ECs included pharmaceuticals, plasticisers, perfluorinated compounds, illicit drugs and metabolites. Extraction from solid matrices occurred using ultrasonic-assisted extraction followed by an in-house validated method for solid-phase extraction and subsequent liquid-chromatography tandem mass-spectrometry. Field-derived bioconcentration-factors and biota-sediment accumulation-factors were determined for all studied biota. Residues of studied contaminants were found in all sediment and biota. Concentrations of contaminants were generally higher in biota than sediment. Evidence suggests that the studied aquatic plants may effectively degrade bisphenol-A into its main transformation product hydroxyacetophenone, potentially mediated by cytochrome p450 and internalisation of contaminants into the cellular vacuole. A positive association between both hydrophobicity and PFC chain length and contaminant accumulation was observed in this work. Only PFCs, plasticisers and HAP were classified as either 'bioaccumulative' or 'very bioaccumulative' using BCF criteria established by guidelines of four governments. Contaminants appeared to be differentially bioaccumulative in biota, indicating there may be a need for a species-specific BCF/BSAF classification system. These data form a detailed accounting of PPCP/EC fate and distribution in the aquatic environment highlighting accumulation at lower trophic levels, a potential source for higher organisms.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John L Wilkinson
- School of Natural and Built Environments, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK; Environment Department, University of York, York, UK.
| | - Peter S Hooda
- School of Natural and Built Environments, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK
| | - Julian Swinden
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK
| | - James Barker
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK
| | - Stephen Barton
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University London, Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Archer E, Petrie B, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Wolfaardt GM. The fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), endocrine disrupting contaminants (EDCs), metabolites and illicit drugs in a WWTW and environmental waters. Chemosphere 2017; 174:437-446. [PMID: 28187390 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.101] [Citation(s) in RCA: 304] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/28/2016] [Revised: 01/15/2017] [Accepted: 01/20/2017] [Indexed: 05/03/2023]
Abstract
A large number of emerging contaminants (ECs) are known to persist in surface waters, and create pressure on wastewater treatment works (WWTW) for their effective removal. Although a large database for the levels of these pollutants in water systems exist globally, there is still a lack in the correlation of the levels of these pollutants with possible long-term adverse health effects in wildlife and humans, such as endocrine disruption. The current study detected a total of 55 ECs in WWTW influent surface water, 41 ECs in effluent, and 40 ECs in environmental waters located upstream and downstream of the plant. A list of ECs persisted through the WWTW process, with 28% of all detected ECs removed by less than 50%, and 18% of all ECs were removed by less than 25%. Negative mass balances of some pharmaceuticals and metabolites were observed within the WWTW, suggesting possible back-transformation of ECs during wastewater treatment. Three parental illicit drug compounds were detected within the influent of the WWTW, with concentrations ranging between 27.6 and 147.0 ng L-1 for cocaine, 35.6-120.6 ng L-1 for mephedrone, and 270.9-450.2 ng L-1 for methamphetamine. The related environmental risks are also discussed for some ECs, with particular reference to their ability to disrupt endocrine systems. The current study propose the potential of the pharmaceuticals carbamazepine, naproxen, diclofenac and ibuprofen to be regarded as priority ECs for environmental monitoring due to their regular detection and persistence in environmental waters and their possible contribution towards adverse health effects in humans and wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Archer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
| | - Bruce Petrie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Gideon M Wolfaardt
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Archer E, Petrie B, Kasprzyk-Hordern B, Wolfaardt GM. The fate of pharmaceuticals and personal care products (PPCPs), endocrine disrupting contaminants (EDCs), metabolites and illicit drugs in a WWTW and environmental waters. Chemosphere 2017. [PMID: 28187390 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2017.01.1010045-6535] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
A large number of emerging contaminants (ECs) are known to persist in surface waters, and create pressure on wastewater treatment works (WWTW) for their effective removal. Although a large database for the levels of these pollutants in water systems exist globally, there is still a lack in the correlation of the levels of these pollutants with possible long-term adverse health effects in wildlife and humans, such as endocrine disruption. The current study detected a total of 55 ECs in WWTW influent surface water, 41 ECs in effluent, and 40 ECs in environmental waters located upstream and downstream of the plant. A list of ECs persisted through the WWTW process, with 28% of all detected ECs removed by less than 50%, and 18% of all ECs were removed by less than 25%. Negative mass balances of some pharmaceuticals and metabolites were observed within the WWTW, suggesting possible back-transformation of ECs during wastewater treatment. Three parental illicit drug compounds were detected within the influent of the WWTW, with concentrations ranging between 27.6 and 147.0 ng L-1 for cocaine, 35.6-120.6 ng L-1 for mephedrone, and 270.9-450.2 ng L-1 for methamphetamine. The related environmental risks are also discussed for some ECs, with particular reference to their ability to disrupt endocrine systems. The current study propose the potential of the pharmaceuticals carbamazepine, naproxen, diclofenac and ibuprofen to be regarded as priority ECs for environmental monitoring due to their regular detection and persistence in environmental waters and their possible contribution towards adverse health effects in humans and wildlife.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Edward Archer
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; Department of Botany and Zoology, University of Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa.
| | - Bruce Petrie
- Department of Chemistry, University of Bath, Bath BA2 7AY, UK
| | | | - Gideon M Wolfaardt
- Department of Microbiology, University of Stellenbosch, Stellenbosch 7602, South Africa; Department of Chemistry and Biology, Ryerson University, Toronto, ON M5B 2K3, Canada
| |
Collapse
|
9
|
Subedi B, Kannan K. Mass loading and removal of select illicit drugs in two wastewater treatment plants in New York State and estimation of illicit drug usage in communities through wastewater analysis. Environ Sci Technol 2014; 48:6661-6670. [PMID: 24865581 DOI: 10.1021/es501709a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 106] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
Abstract
Sewage epidemiology is a rapidly expanding field that can provide information on illicit drug usage in communities, based on the measured concentrations in samples from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs). In this study, select illicit drugs (six drugs and eight metabolites) were determined on a daily basis for a week in wastewater, suspended particulate matter (SPM), and sludge from two WWTPs in the Albany area in New York State. The WWTP that served a larger population (∼100 000, with a flow rate of 83 300 m(3)/d) showed 3.2 (methadone) to 51 (3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine; MDA) times higher mass flows of illicit drugs than did the WWTP that served a smaller population (∼15 000, with a flow rate of 6850 m(3)/d). The consumption rate of target illicit drugs in the communities served by the two WWTPs was estimated to range from 1.67 to 3510 mg/d/1000 people. Between the dissolved and particulate phases, the fraction of methadone, 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP), amphetamine, and MDA sorbed to SPM ranged from 34.3% to 41.1% of the total mass in the waste stream. The removal efficiencies of illicit drugs from the two WWTPs ranged from 4% (norcocaine) to 99% (cocaine); however, methamphetamine, methadone, and EDDP showed a negative removal in WWTPs. The environmental emission of illicit drugs from WWTP discharges was calculated to range from 0.38 (MDEA) to 67.5 (EDDP) mg/d/1000 people. Other markers such as caffeine, paraxanthine, nicotine, and cotinine were found to predict the concentrations of select illicit drugs in raw wastewater (r(2) = 0.20-0.79; p ≤ 0.029).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bikram Subedi
- Wadsworth Center, New York State Department of Health, and Department of Environmental Health Sciences, School of Public Health, State University of New York at Albany , Empire State Plaza, P.O. Box 509, Albany New York 12201-0509, United States
| | | |
Collapse
|
10
|
Eden PR. An overview: drugs-of-abuse testing in the clinical laboratory today. MLO Med Lab Obs 2014; 46:22-24. [PMID: 24696950] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/03/2023]
|
11
|
|
12
|
Frison G, Gregio M, Zamengo L, Zancanaro F, Frasson S, Sciarrone R. Gas chromatography/mass spectrometry determination of mephedrone in drug seizures after derivatization with 2,2,2-trichloroethyl chloroformate. Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom 2011; 25:387-390. [PMID: 21192034 DOI: 10.1002/rcm.4842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
|
13
|
Petrovic M, de Alda MJL, Diaz-Cruz S, Postigo C, Radjenovic J, Gros M, Barcelo D. Fate and removal of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs in conventional and membrane bioreactor wastewater treatment plants and by riverbank filtration. Philos Trans A Math Phys Eng Sci 2009; 367:3979-4003. [PMID: 19736231 DOI: 10.1098/rsta.2009.0105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) and drugs of abuse (DAs) are two important groups of emerging environmental contaminants that have raised an increasing interest in the scientific community. A number of studies revealed their presence in the environment. This is mainly due to the fact that some compounds are not efficiently removed during wastewater treatment processes, being able to reach surface and groundwater and subsequently, drinking waters. This paper reviews the data regarding the levels of pharmaceuticals and illicit drugs detected in wastewaters and gives an overview of their removal by conventional treatment technologies (applying activated sludge) as well as advanced treatments such as membrane bioreactor. The paper also gives an overview of bank filtration practices at managed aquifer recharge sites and discusses the potential of this approach to mitigate the contamination by PhACs and DAs.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Mira Petrovic
- Depart ment of Environmental Chemistry, IDAEA-CSIC, , c/Jordi Girona 18-26, 08034 Barcelona, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
14
|
Loganathan B, Phillips M, Mowery H, Jones-Lepp TL. Contamination profiles and mass loadings of macrolide antibiotics and illicit drugs from a small urban wastewater treatment plant. Chemosphere 2009; 75:70-77. [PMID: 19121838 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2008.11.047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2008] [Revised: 10/31/2008] [Accepted: 11/16/2008] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Information is limited regarding sources, distribution, environmental behavior, and fate of prescribed and illicit drugs. Wastewater treatment plant (WWTP) effluents can be one of the sources of pharmaceutical and personal care products (PPCP) into streams, rivers and lakes. The objective of this study was to determine the contamination profiles and mass loadings of urobilin (a chemical marker of human waste), macrolide antibiotics (azithromycin, clarithromycin, roxithromycin), and two drugs of abuse (methamphetamine and ecstasy), from a small (<19 mega liters day(-1), equivalent to <5 million gallons per day) wastewater treatment plant in southwestern Kentucky. The concentrations of azithromycin, clarithromycin, methamphetamine and ecstasy in wastewater samples varied widely, ranging from non-detects to 300 ng L(-1). Among the macrolide antibiotics analyzed, azithromycin was consistently detected in influent and effluent samples. In general, influent samples contained relatively higher concentrations of the analytes than the effluents. Based on the daily flow rates and an average concentration of 17.5 ng L(-1) in the effluent, the estimated discharge of azithromycin was 200 mg day(-1) (range 63-400 mg day(-1)). Removal efficiency of the detected analytes from this WWTP were in the following order: urobilin>methamphetamine>azithromycin with percentages of removal of 99.9%, 54.5% and 47%, respectively, indicating that the azithromycin and methamphetamine are relatively more recalcitrant than others and have potential for entering receiving waters.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Bommanna Loganathan
- Department of Chemistry and Center for Reservoir Research, Murray State University, Murray, KY 42071-3346, USA
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
15
|
Huerta-Fontela M, Galceran MT, Ventura F. Stimulatory drugs of abuse in surface waters and their removal in a conventional drinking water treatment plant. Environ Sci Technol 2008; 42:6809-6816. [PMID: 18853793 DOI: 10.1021/es800768h] [Citation(s) in RCA: 65] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/26/2023]
Abstract
The presence of psychoactive stimulatory drugs in raw waters used for drinking water production and in finished drinking water was evaluated in a Spanish drinking water treatment plant (DWTP). Contamination of the river basin which provides raw water to this DWTP was also studied. In surface waters, illicit drugs such as cocaine, benzoylecgonine (cocaine metabolite), amphetamine, methamphetamine, MDMA (ecstasy), and MDA were detected at mean concentrations ranging from 4 to 350 ng/L. Nicotine, caffeine, and their metabolites were also found at the microg/L level. The elimination of these compounds during drinking water treatment was investigated in a real waterworks. Amphetamine-type stimulants (except MDMA) were completely removed during prechlorination, flocculation, and sand filtration steps, yielding concentrations lowerthan their limits of detection (LODs). Further, ozone treatment was shown to be effective in partially eliminating caffeine (76%), while subsequent granulated activated carbon (GAC) filtration removed cocaine (100%), MDMA(88%), benzoylecgonine (72%), and cotinine (63%). Postchlorination achieved the complete elimination of cocaine and nicotine and only one parent compound (caffeine) and two metabolites (cotinine and benzoylecgonine) persisted throughout treatment although reductions of 90% for caffeine and benzoylecgonine and 74% for cotinine were obtained.
Collapse
|
16
|
Fernández P, Lago M, Lorenzo RA, Carro AM, Bermejo AM, Tabernero MJ. Microwave-Assisted Extraction and HPLC-DAD Determination of Drugs of Abuse in Human Plasma. J Anal Toxicol 2007; 31:388-93. [PMID: 17725887 DOI: 10.1093/jat/31.7.388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
A sample preparation procedure using microwave energy is proposed for the determination of morphine, 6-acetylmorphine, codeine, cocaine, cocaethylene, benzoylecgonine, methadone, and 2-ethylene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine in human plasma. A screening asymmetrical factorial design was used to identify the most suitable extraction conditions as regards solvent, temperature, and extraction time. The target drugs were quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography with diode-array detection. The use of microwave energy was found to reduce solvent consumption and extraction time compared with solid-phase extraction. The detector response was linear over the drug concentration range of 0.05-2.0 microg/mL in human plasma. The precision and accuracy were good, with values less than 8% and 7%, respectively. Drug recoveries from spiked samples ranged from 69 to 81%. The proposed method was successfully applied to a number of forensic cases.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Purificación Fernández
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Service, Faculty of Medicine, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
17
|
Abstract
Microwave assisted extraction (MAE) was used to extract drugs of abuse from urine samples for the simultaneous determination of morphine, codeine, 6-acetylmorphine (6AM), cocaine, cocaethylene, benzoylecgonine (BEG), methadone and 2-ethylidene-1,5-dimethyl-3,3-diphenylpyrrolidine (EDDP) by high performance liquid chromatography with diode array detector (HPLC-DAD). The working wavelengths used were 285 nm for morphine, codeine and 6AM; 233 nm for cocaine, cocaethylene and BEG; and 292 nm for methadone and EDDP. The mobile phase was a gradient of acetonitrile and phosphate buffer at pH 6.5. A full factorial design was used to identify the most suitable extraction conditions as regards pH, solvent and time of extraction. The optimum conditions thus established provided analyte recoveries from 61% to 109%. The detector response was linear over the drug concentration range 0.1-4.0 microg ml(-1) in urine. The within- and between-day precision and accuracy were less than 8% and 6.5%, respectively. The method was applied successfully to samples obtained from Galician hospitals and courts.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Purificación Fernández
- Institute of Legal Medicine, Forensic Toxicology Service, Santiago de Compostela, Spain.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
18
|
Casteele SRV, Bouche MPL, Van Bocxlaer JF. LC-MS/MS in the elucidation of an isomer of the recreational drug methylenedioxy ethylamphetamine: Methylenedioxy dimethylamphetamine. J Sep Sci 2005; 28:1729-34. [PMID: 16224967 DOI: 10.1002/jssc.200500108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes the surplus value of a quadrupole-orthogonal acceleration TOF mass spectrometer, coupled to a liquid chromatographic separation system, for the unequivocal identification and structural elucidation of an unknown compound in the field of designer drugs. In a patient sample set (blood, tissues, vitreous humor, etc.), analyzed with a dedicated liquid chromatographic-fluorescence detection method for the determination of methylenedioxy amphetamine, methylenedioxy methamphetamine, and methylenedioxy ethylamphetamine (MDEA), a "strange" inexplicable peak appeared at a retention time not corresponding to any of our reference materials. Based on the identical excitation and emission wavelengths in detection, and a retention behavior comparable to MDEA, it was assumed that this unknown compound was an isomer of the recreational drug MDEA. With a simple and straightforward methodological crossover between LC fluorescence detection and LC-MS/MS, additional information for structural elucidation was easily obtained. Chromatographic separation was achieved on a Hypersil BDS C18 column (fluorescence detection part) and on a Hypersil BDS phenyl column (mass spectrometric detection part). MS showed that the unknown compound's molecular mass was identical to that of MDEA, and, in addition, its fragmentation pattern too proved quite similar to that of MDEA. A thorough literature overview and study of the fragmentation pattern by means of the MS/MS spectrum led to an evidence-based hypothesis of 3,4-methylenedioxy N,N-dimethylamphetamine (MDDM) being the unknown compound. To confirm this hypothesis, MDDM was synthesized and its presence in our biological sample was finally demonstrated by co-injection with alternatively synthesized MDDM and MDEA. This application shows the synergism between LC and MS in the elucidation of unknown compounds, nevertheless emphasizing the essence of chromatographic separation when dealing with isomers.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Sofie R Vande Casteele
- Laboratory of Medical Biochemistry and Clinical Analysis, Vakgroep Bio-analysis, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
19
|
Chappell JS, Meyn AW, Ngim KK. The extraction and infrared identification of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) from aqueous solutions. J Forensic Sci 2004; 49:52-9. [PMID: 14979343] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/29/2023]
Abstract
The chemical analysis of gamma-hydroxybutyric acid (GHB) in most forensic laboratories is complicated by the highly polar nature of the GHB molecule, which makes it unsuitable for direct analysis by gas chromatography (GC). Consequently, a popular analytical approach is to convert GHB into the corresponding lactone or a derivative compound that is then identified by mass spectrometry employed in conjunction with GC (GC/MS). An alternative approach is presented here where GHB may be isolated as a free acid specie from complex aqueous solutions employing a liquid-liquid extraction technique. This approach can yield a relatively pure residue of GHB that presents an infrared transmission spectrum that is sufficiently distinct for identification purposes. Infrared spectroscopy (IR) is a very popular technique that is available to most crime laboratories. The liquid-liquid extraction behavior of GHB is examined in detail and the uniqueness of the infrared spectrum is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- John S Chappell
- Drug Enforcement Administration, Western Laboratory, San Francisco, CA 94105, USA
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
20
|
Welch MJ, Sniegoski LT, Tai S. Two new standard reference materials for the determination of drugs of abuse in human hair. Anal Bioanal Chem 2003; 376:1205-11. [PMID: 12879199 DOI: 10.1007/s00216-003-2061-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2003] [Revised: 05/04/2003] [Accepted: 05/13/2003] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
Two new standard reference materials (SRM) for drugs of abuse in human hair have been developed. SRM 2379 consists of hair spiked with cocaine, benzoylecgonine, cocaethylene, phencyclidine, amphetamine, and methamphetamine. SRM 2380 consists of hair spiked with codeine, morphine, monoacetylmorphine, and tetrahydrocannabinol (THC). The SRMs were prepared by soaking the hair in a solution of the target analytes in water-dimethylsulfoxide. The concentration of each analyte was determined using two methods, one based upon gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS) and one based upon liquid chromatography/mass spectrometry (LC/MS). Both methods used 0.1 M HCl for extraction of all the analytes from the hair, except for THC, which was extracted with 1 M NaOH. For isolation of the analytes from the extracts, the GC/MS-based methods used different clean-up procedures from those used for the LC/MS-based methods. The results from the two methods were in good agreement with mean differences for the analytes ranging from 4% to 16%. These materials will enable laboratories performing analyses of hair for drugs of abuse to test the accuracy of their methods.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Michael J Welch
- Analytical Chemistry Division, Chemical Science and Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, Gaithersburg, MA, USA.
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
21
|
Herráez-Hernández R, Campíns-Falcó P, Verdú-Andrés J. Strategies for the enantiomeric determination of amphetamine and related compounds by liquid chromatography. J Biochem Biophys Methods 2002; 54:147-67. [PMID: 12543496 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-022x(02)00137-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Abstract
This paper summarizes recent research on the stereospecific analysis of amphetamine, its analogs and metabolites, by liquid chromatography. The different methods proposed have been evaluated and compared in terms of resolution power, time of analysis, sensitivity, or potential for automation. Chiral derivatization, followed by separation of the diastereomers formed in achiral chromatographic systems, is still the method preferred for the analysis of amphetamines at trace levels, as derivatization also improves analyte detectability. This is the method of choice for the enantiomeric analysis of amphetamines at the low concentrations typically encountered in biological samples. In recent years, special attention has been devoted to the development of alternatives for the automation of the analytical process by integrating the derivatization step into the chromatographic scheme. A promising alternative is the employment of beta-cyclodextrins as chiral selectors, both immobilized on the stationary phase and added to the mobile phase. However, with a few exceptions, beta-cyclodextrins perform better for non-derivatized amphetamines. Therefore, the utility of these selectors in the analysis of biological samples is limited. The reliability of less-used chiral stationary phases (Pirkle type, cellulose based or protein based), as well as methods based on the mathematical treatment of the chromatographic signal, are also discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- R Herráez-Hernández
- Facultad de Quimica, Departamento de Química Analítica, Universitat de València, c/ Dr Moliner, 50, 46100-Burjassot, Valencia, Spain
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
22
|
Liu JT, Liu RH. Enantiomeric composition of abused amine drugs: chromatographic methods of analysis and data interpretation. J Biochem Biophys Methods 2002; 54:115-46. [PMID: 12543495 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-022x(02)00136-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ju-Tsung Liu
- Department of Forensic Education, Army Force of Military Police School, Wugu, Taipei, Taiwan, ROC
| | | |
Collapse
|
23
|
Cheng WC, Lee WM, Chan MF, Tsui P, Dao KL. Enantiomeric separation of methamphetamine and related analogs by capillary zone electrophoresis: intelligence study in routine methamphetamine seizures. J Forensic Sci 2002; 47:1248-52. [PMID: 12455645] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/27/2023]
Abstract
A method for simultaneous enantiomeric separation of ephedrine, pseudoephedrine, and methamphetamine (MA) in a single run by simple capillary zone electrophoresis (CZE) with beta-cyclodextrin as a chiral selector is described. The effects of the buffer pH, phosphate concentration, beta-cyclodextrin concentration, voltage and temperature on the peak resolution were examined. Good enantiomeric resolution was attained for each analyte under our optimized conditions: 15 mM beta-cyclodextrin, 300 mM NaH2PO4 at pH 2.5 with an uncoated capillary (64.5 cm x 50 microm), applied potential at 20 kV and temperature at 30 degrees C. Ultraviolet (UV) detection at a fixed wavelength (200 nm) was employed using a diode array detector. Using phentermine as an internal standard, migration times for all analytes are reproducible within 0.16% for intra-day and 0.6% for inter-day runs. Application of this method to the analysis of confiscated drugs is discussed.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Wing-Chi Cheng
- Forensic Science Division, Government Laboratory, Homantin Government Offices, Homantin, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, People's Republic of China
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
24
|
Kuroda N, Sato D, Ohyama K, Wada M, Nakahara Y, Nakashima K. Separation of sympathomimetic amines of abuse and related compounds by micellar electrokinetic chromatography. Chem Pharm Bull (Tokyo) 2001; 49:905-8. [PMID: 11456100 DOI: 10.1248/cpb.49.905] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Separation of twelve sympathomimetic amines and related compounds by micellar electrokinetic chromatography (MEKC) with UV absorbance detection is described. These amines were well separated within 25 min using 50 mM sodium tetraborate solution containing 15 mM sodium dodecylsulfate (SDS) of pH 9.3 as a running solution and detected at 210 nm. MEKC was performed with an applied voltage of 13 kV at 25 degrees C using a fused-silica capillary (50 cm x 75 mm i.d.) with effective length of 37.5 cm. The detection limits of these compounds were in the range from 4 to 97 fmol/injection at a signal-to-noise ratio (S/N) of 3. The reproducibility of the method expressed as relative standard deviation (RSD) for within-day (n=6) and between-day (n=5) assays was less than 4.8 and 8.8%, respectively. The proposed method could be applied to the determination of an anorectic drug, phentermine, in Chinese tea with a detection limit of 99 microg/g (105 fmol/injection, S/N=3).
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- N Kuroda
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nagasaki University, Japan.
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
25
|
Gaillard Y, Pépin G. Hair testing for pharmaceuticals and drugs of abuse: forensic and clinical applications. Am Clin Lab 1997; 16:18-22. [PMID: 10174671] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/11/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Y Gaillard
- Laboratoire TOXLAB, Paris, France. 106922,
| | | |
Collapse
|
26
|
DuBey IS, Caplan YH. The storage of forensic urine drug specimens as dry stains: recovery and stability. J Forensic Sci 1996; 41:845-50. [PMID: 8789844] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
The feasibility of storing forensic urine drug specimens as dry stains on Whatman #3 paper was studied by evaluating the stability of the drugs and recovery from the stains. Drug stains prepared from urine (3 mL) were stores at -20 degrees C, 4 degrees C, and at room temperature for a period of 12 weeks. The study included: amphetamine, benzoylecgonine, 11-nor-delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol-9-carboxylic acid (THC-COOH), morphine, and phencyclidine (PCP) as examples of the HHS regulated drug classes. Drugs were eluted from the stains as follows: methanol:saline (1:1) for PCP and THC-COOH, saline for benzoylecgonine and carbonate/bicarbonate buffer pH 9.2 for amphetamine and morphine. Stains were eluted from the support matrix (Whatman #3 filter paper), extracted and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. All drugs were stable under all of the storage conditions except the THC-COOH urine stain stored at room temperature that degraded to zero after 12 weeks. Therefore, drug stains when kept frozen or refrigerated appear to provide a viable means for storing positive urine specimens.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I S DuBey
- Corning National Center for Forensic Science, Baltimore, MD 21227, USA
| | | |
Collapse
|
27
|
Palfrey S, Labib M. A simple HPLC method for the separation of amphetamine isomers in urine and its application in differentiating between 'street' amphetamine and prescribed D-amphetamine. Ann Clin Biochem 1996; 33 ( Pt 4):344-6. [PMID: 8836393 DOI: 10.1177/000456329603300410] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
D-amphetamine has been increasingly prescribed to treat amphetamine abusers. Prescribing D-amphetamine requires laboratory evidence or confirmation of current use of 'street' amphetamine, using a method which should be capable of differentiating between 'street' amphetamine and prescribed D-amphetamine. We have developed a simple high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) method for the separation of the two isomers of amphetamine in urine and have assessed its use in differentiating between 'street' amphetamine and prescribed D-amphetamine. The method is reproducible, free from interference and has a detection limit of 0.1 microgram/mL for each isomer. Urine from patients prescribed D-amphetamine contained only a trace amount of L-amphetamine (less than 4%) whereas urine from those taking 'street' amphetamine contained more than 50% L-amphetamine. The method is applicable to confirmation of 'street' amphetamine misuse and for monitoring patient compliance with treatment. The presence of 4% or less L-amphetamine in urine would suggest that the patient is only taking prescribed D-amphetamine whereas the presence of L-amphetamine in higher concentrations suggests that the patient is taking 'street' amphetamine, with or without prescribed D-amphetamine.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- S Palfrey
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Russells Hall Hospital, Dudley, West Midlands, UK
| | | |
Collapse
|
28
|
Sevcík J, Stránský Z, Ingelse BA, Lemr K. Capillary electrophoretic enantioseparation of selegiline, methamphetamine and ephedrine using a neutral beta-cyclodextrin epichlorhydrin polymer. J Pharm Biomed Anal 1996; 14:1089-94. [PMID: 8818019 DOI: 10.1016/s0731-7085(96)01726-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
Abstract
This paper describes the development of a capillary zone electrophoretic method for chiral separation of three basic compounds of the selegiline synthetic pathway: ephedrine, methamphetamine and selegiline. The method developed allows one to separate the studied compounds in one run using a neutral beta-cyclodextrin epichlorhydrin polymer. The effect of various experimental parameters, such as chiral selector concentration, concentration and composition of background electrolyte, pH, temperature, and the addition of some organic solvents, on the resolution and migration time is discussed. For selegiline and methamphetamine, it is possible, under optimal conditions, to quantify less than 0.5% of the minor isomer in an excess of the major one.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- J Sevcík
- Department of Analytical and Organic Chemistry, Palacký University, Olomouc, Czech Republic.
| | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
29
|
Achilli G, Cellerino GP, Melzi d'Eril GV, Tagliaro F. Determination of illicit drugs and related substances by high-performance liquid chromatography with an electrochemical coulometric-array detector. J Chromatogr A 1996; 729:273-7. [PMID: 9004949 DOI: 10.1016/0021-9673(95)01095-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
A general method for the simultaneous determination of fifteen common drugs (6-acetylmorphine, 3,4-methylenedioxymetamphetamine, buprenorphin, cocaine, codeine, dihydrocodeine, ethylmorphine, heroin, hydrocodone, lidocaine, methadone, morphine, naloxone, procaine and thebaine) was developed using reversed-phase HPLC and electrochemical detection. The separation of the drugs was achieved by using as the mobile phase 20 mM monobasic sodium phosphate-acetonitrile (90:10) with a gradient to 50% of the organic modifier, on a silica based C18 column (150 x 4.6 mm I.D.) of 3 microns particle size and by the selectivity supplied by an array of eight coulometric electrodes at increasing potential. It was possible to identify and to determine fifteen different drugs in the same chromatographic run in 50 min. The method was tentatively applied to the determination of drugs in extracts of human hair.
Collapse
|
30
|
Lurie IS, Chan KC, Spratley TK, Casale JF, Issaq HJ. Separation and detection of acidic and neutral impurities in illicit heroin via capillary electrophoresis. J Chromatogr B Biomed Appl 1995; 669:3-13. [PMID: 7581884 DOI: 10.1016/0378-4347(95)00148-c] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/26/2023]
Abstract
The separation and detection of acidic and neutral impurities in illicit heroin using capillary electrophoresis (CE) is described. Separations were achieved using charged cyclodextrin modified micellar electrokinetic capillary chromatography. The use of the anionic beta-cyclodextrin sulfobutyl ether 1V in combination with sodium dodecyl sulfate significantly increased resolution. Improved selectivity and/or sensitivity in detection was obtained using photodiode array ultraviolet and laser-induced fluorescence detection. The phenanthrene-like heroin impurities exhibit high native fluorescence under krypton-fluoride laser excitation (248 nm). The limit of detection by laser-induced fluorescence detection for one of these solutes (acetylthebaol) is 1.8 ng/ml, 500 times more sensitive than UV. This methodology is applicable to analysis of both crude and refined heroin.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I S Lurie
- Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, McLean, VA 22102-3494, USA
| | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
31
|
Lurie IS, Klein RF, Dal Cason TA, LeBelle MJ, Brenneisen R, Weinberger RE. Chiral resolution of cationic drugs of forensic interest by capillary electrophoresis with mixtures of neutral and anionic cyclodextrins. Anal Chem 1994; 66:4019-26. [PMID: 7810901 DOI: 10.1021/ac00094a026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 234] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Chiral resolution of a number of cationic drugs of forensic interest (amphetamine, methamphetamine, cathinone, methcathinone, cathine, cocaine, propoxyphene, and various alpha-hydroxyphenethylamines) is achieved via capillary electrophoresis (CE) with added cyclodextrins (CDs), including novel mixtures of neutral and anionic CDs. In the latter studies, resolution and migration speed are readily adjusted by varying the ratio of the two added CDs, as the anionic CD acts as a counter-migrating complexing reagent. The neutral CD, heptakis(2,6-di-O-methyl)-beta-CD, was found suitable for the analysis of illicit cocaine and khat leaves (Catha edulis Forsk), which contain (-)-alpha-aminopropiophenone ((-)-cathinone), (+)-norpseudoephedrine (cathine), (-)-norephedrine, and trace levels of the phenylpentenylamines (+)-merucathinone, (+)-merucathine, and possibly (-)-pseudomerucathine. The use of mixtures of the neutral and the anionic CD (beta-CD sulfobutyl ether IV) was found suitable for the analysis of illicit amphetamine, methamphetamine, methcathinone, and propoxyphene. A model is presented for the impact of mixtures of neutral and anionic CDs on migration behavior and chiral resolution in CE.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- I S Lurie
- Drug Enforcement Administration, Special Testing and Research Laboratory, McLean, Virginia 22102-3494
| | | | | | | | | | | |
Collapse
|
32
|
Veress T. Study of the extraction of LSD from illicit blotters for HPLC determination. J Forensic Sci 1993; 38:1105-10. [PMID: 8228883] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
The effect of different parameters (extraction method, temperature, time, solvent) on the extraction efficiency of LSD from impregnated papers has been investigated. Designed experiments have been applied according to the Plackett-Burman method. For the quantitative determination of LSD reversed phase ion-pair chromatography has been used with UV detection. The experimental conditions assuring maximal LSD recovery have been determined, as well as the constant and proportional bias of the extraction procedure elaborated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- T Veress
- Institute for Forensic Science, Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
33
|
Bohn M, Bohn G, Blaschke G. Synthesis markers in illegally manufactured 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine. Int J Legal Med 1993; 106:19-23. [PMID: 8104465 DOI: 10.1007/bf01225019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [What about the content of this article? (0)] [Affiliation(s)] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
In this paper the isolation and identification of 12 compounds as impurities in illicit 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is reported. Isolation of these substances is performed by preparative TLC, while identification is performed by using mass spectrometry and 1H-NMR spectroscopy. A simple and rapid method for detection of these impurities in seized MDA and MDMA samples is described. The identification of the impurities can provide numerous points on which to base comparative analysis of different exhibits.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- M Bohn
- Institut für Rechtsmedizin, Westfälische Wilhelms-Universität, Münster, Germany
| | | | | |
Collapse
|
34
|
Abstract
Urine drug testing has become an increasingly controversial issue in today's society. In this paper, several issues involved in urine drug testing are discussed. These include the limitations of the accuracy of urine testing, testing in schools, athletics, the military and industry, and the legalities of drug testing. Also discussed is background information about urine drug screening and key factors in obtaining specimens for testing. Conclusions about the role of urine drug testing in the battle against substance abuse are drawn.
Collapse
|