Consequences of COVID-19 pandemic on solid waste management: Scenarios pertaining to developing countries

Generation, types and impacts of biomedical waste during COVID-19: Indian context

India's already-stressed waste disposal system has been strained by the COVID-19 outbreak. The challenge of managing biomedical Waste (BMW) in India has become more complicated in recent years, mainly due to the sudden emergence of COVID-19. As a methodology, a literature review was carried out with the help of Google Scholar, Research Gate, PubMed, and academic journal databases. Additionally, publications from numerous non-academic sources (such as news websites etc.) and current guidelines, such as those from the Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, Government of India, were also accessed. The review study identifies that PPE (Personal Protective Equipment) made up the majority of biomedical waste, followed by vaccine waste, during the peak of the COVID-19 vaccination campaign. The increase in PPEs such as face masks, aprons, face shields, gloves, goggles, and sanitizers, as well as other medical waste like bandages, plastic containers, syringes, testing kits, and tissues, has significantly changed the makeup of the BMW. This pandemic has hampered the proper management of solid waste, which has now surfaced as a major threat to developing countries. In this paper, biomedical waste management strategies followed in India and its disposal methods, cost-effective and environment-friendly methods to treat medical waste are also discussed.

Converting textile waste into value-added chemicals: An integrated bio-refinery process

The rate of textile waste generation worldwide has increased dramatically due to a rise in clothing consumption and production. Here, conversion of cotton-based, colored cotton-based, and blended cotton-polyethylene terephthalate (PET) textile waste materials into value-added chemicals (bioethanol, sorbitol, lactic acid, terephthalic acid (TPA), and ethylene glycol (EG)) via enzymatic hydrolysis and fermentation was investigated. In order to enhance the efficiency of enzymatic saccharification, effective pretreatment methods for each type of textile waste were developed, respectively. A high glucose yield of 99.1% was obtained from white cotton-based textile waste after NaOH pretreatment. Furthermore, the digestibility of the cellulose in colored cotton-based textile wastes was increased 1.38-1.75 times because of the removal of dye materials by HPAC-NaOH pretreatment. The blended cotton-PET samples showed good hydrolysis efficiency following PET removal via NaOH-ethanol pretreatment, with a glucose yield of 92.49%. The sugar content produced via enzymatic hydrolysis was then converted into key platform chemicals (bioethanol, sorbitol, and lactic acid) via fermentation or hydrogenation. The maximum ethanol yield was achieved with the white T-shirt sample (537 mL/kg substrate), which was 3.2, 2.1, and 2.6 times higher than those obtained with rice straw, pine wood, and oak wood, respectively. Glucose was selectively converted into sorbitol and LA at a yield of 70% and 83.67%, respectively. TPA and EG were produced from blended cotton-PET via NaOH-ethanol pretreatment. The integrated biorefinery process proposed here demonstrates significant potential for valorization of textile waste.

Micro and macro analysis of restaurant wastewater containing fat, oil, grease (FOG): An approach based on prevention, control, and sustainable management

The number of restaurants is increasing day by day in almost all the developing countries, causing the increase in the generation of restaurant wastewater. Various activities (i.e., cleaning, washing, and cooking) going on in the restaurant kitchen lead to restaurant wastewater (RWW). RWW has high concentrations of chemical oxygen demand (COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), nutrients such as potassium, phosphorus, and nitrogen, and solids. RWW also contains fats, oil, and grease (FOG) in alarmingly high concentration, which after congealing can constrict the sewer lines, leading to blockages, backups, and sanitatry sewer overflows (SSOs). The paper provides an insight to the details of RWW containing FOG collected from a gravity grease interceptor at a specific site in Malaysia, and its expected consequences and the sustainable management plan as prevention, control, and mitigation (PCM) approach. The results showed that the concentrations of pollutants are very high as compared to the discharge standards given by Department of Environment, Malaysia. Maximum values for COD, BOD and FOG in the restaurant wastewater samples were found to be 9948, 3170, and 1640 mg/l, respectively. FAME and FESEM analysis are done on the RWW containing FOG. In the FOG, palmitic acid (C16:0), stearic acid (C18:0), oleic acid (C18:1n9c), linoleic acid (C18:2n6c) are the dominant lipid acids with a maximum of 41, 8.4, 43.2, and 11.5%, respectively. FESEM analysis showed formation of whitish layers fprmed due to the deposition of calcium salts. Furthermore, a novel design of indoor hydromechanical grease interceptor (HGI) was proposed in the study based on the Malaysian conditions of restaurant. The HGI was designed for a maximum flow rate of 132 L per minute and a maximum FOG capacity of 60 kg.

Determinants of proper disposal of single-use masks: knowledge, perception, behavior, and intervention measures

Background

Although many studies testify to consumer behavior's role in the context of waste-related sustainability objectives, little research examined what people know, think, and feel about the environmental impacts of their personal protective equipment (PPE) or their behavior towards them, in general. Therefore, the present article complements existing information about the public perceptions, knowledge, and behavior of single-use masks in a context where the pandemic has put increasing pressure on waste management public services. From February to June 2020, municipal solid waste increased ten times in Romania. The study identified the factors that predicted the proper disposal of single-use masks and the measures preferred to prevent or minimize the negative impact of single-use mask waste.

Method

Data from a representative sample of 705 Romanians were collected using a structured questionnaire. The data were analyzed with SPSS and SmartPLS. The Cochran's Q test was run to determine the existence of differences between percentages of people who preferred various measures. Dunn's test with a Bonferroni correction was used to identify the exact pair of groups where the differences were located. The study utilized structural equation models (SEM) based on at least partial squares with SmartPLS software (3.2.8) to investigate causal links between constructs. The model considered that the dependent variable (environmentally friendly behavior: proper disposal of single-use masks) could be influenced by the knowledge, perception, behavior, and demographics variables.

Results

The findings indicated that knowledge of the type of material of single-use masks had a direct positive (β = 0.173) and significant effect on their proper disposal. The perception of mask waste impact has a negative and significant (β = -0.153, p < 0.001) impact on the proper disposal of single-use masks. This path coefficient illustrates that the worse the perceived impact of single-use masks on waste management activity, the higher the proper disposal of single-use masks. Gender has a positive (β = 0.115) and significant (p < 0.001) effect on the proper disposal of single-use masks.

Conclusions

It was concluded that the 5Rs waste management approach should be reconsidered for single-use mask waste. For example, "Reuse" and the classic "Recycle" have limited applications since they may lead to virus transmission and possible infection. "Reducing" the use of single-use masks could have repercussions on one's health. Summing up, the study outlined recommendations for effective interventions for the proper disposal of single-use masks from the perspective of behavioral studies.

The long-term impact of coronavirus disease 2019 on environmental health: a review study of the bi-directional effect

Background

When health systems worldwide grapple with the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, its effect on the global environment is also a significant consideration factor. It is a two-way process where the pre-COVID climate factors influenced the landscape in which the disease proliferates globally and the consequences of the pandemic on our surroundings. The environmental health disparities will also have a long-lasting effect on public health response.

Main body

The ongoing research on the novel coronavirus severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2) and COVID-19 must also include the role of environmental factors in the process of infection and the differential severity of the disease. Studies have shown that the virus has created positive and negative ramifications on the world environment, especially in countries most critically affected by the pandemic. Contingency measures to slow down the virus, such as self-distancing and lockdowns have shown improvements in air, water, and noise quality with a concomitant decrease in greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, biohazard waste management is a cause for concern that can result in negative effects on planetary health. At the peak of the infection, most attention has been diverted to the medical aspects of the pandemic. Gradually, policymakers must shift their focus to social and economic avenues, environmental development, and sustainability.

Conclusion

The COVID-19 pandemic has profoundly impacted the environment, both directly and indirectly. On the one hand, the sudden halt in economic and industrial activities led to a decrease in air and water pollution, as well as a reduction in greenhouse gas emissions. On the other hand, the increased use of single-use plastics and a surge in e-commerce activities have had negative effects on the environment. As we move forward, we must consider the pandemic's long-term impacts on the environment and work toward a more sustainable future that balances economic growth and environmental protection. The study shall update the readers on the various facets of the interaction between this pandemic and environmental health with model development for long-term sustainability.

Graphic Abstract

COVID-19 impacts on household solid waste generation in six Latin American countries: a participatory approach

The COVID-19 pandemic has greatly impacted the Americas, the continent with the highest number of COVID-related deaths according to WHO statistics. In Latin America, strict confinement conditions at the beginning of the pandemic put recycling activity to a halt and augmented the consumption of plastic as a barrier to stop the spread of the virus. The lack of data to understand waste management dynamics complicates waste management strategy adjustments aimed at coping with COVID-19. As a novel contribution to the waste management data gap for Latin America, this study uses a virtual and participatory methodology that collects and generates information on household solid waste generation and composition. Data was collected between June and November 2021 in six countries in Latin America, with a total of 503 participants. Participants indicated that the pandemic motivated them to initiate or increase waste reduction (41%), waste separation (40%), and waste recovery (33%) activities. Forty-three percent of participants perceived an increase in total volume of their waste; however, the quantitative data showed a decrease in household waste generation in Peru (-31%), Honduras (-25%), and Venezuela (-82%). No changes in waste composition were observed. Despite the limited sample size, this data provides a much-needed approximation of household waste generation and composition in the pandemic situation during 2021.

Using the concept of circular economy to reduce the environmental impact of COVID-19 face mask waste

COVID-19 pandemic has posed severe threats to the society globally. World Health Organization (WHO) guidelines suggest that people wear face masks as a precautionary measure daily. This has resulted in the generation of massive amounts of mask-associated waste in the environment. Owing to the criticality of the epidemic, there has not been a large-scale investigation on where to discard masks, making this situation daunting. As the pandemic continues, the use of masks continues to increase; repeated use and disposal of masks has become an imperative issue. Most disposable masks comprise chemical fibers in the filter layer. Without proper treatment and disposal, these large amounts of chemical waste will eventually flow into rivers or oceans, leading to serious pollution. Therefore, to reduce the negative effects on the marine environment, it is crucial that we produce reusable masks and reduce disposable wearing habits. This study aimed to resolve this challenge using textile materials created by recycling fish-scale waste. Functional and comfortable masks manufactured without chemical additives to achieve multiple functions can increase the willingness to wear and be reused. Hence, product use can be prolonged, and the use of disposable masks can be curtailed. The product manufactured herein is biodegradable in nature, thus conforming to the green sustainable initiative.

Elucidating the role of environmental management of forests, air quality, solid waste and wastewater on the dissemination of SARS-CoV-2

The increasing frequency of zoonotic diseases is amongst several catastrophic repercussions of inadequate environmental management. Emergence, prevalence, and lethality of zoonotic diseases is intrinsically linked to environmental management which are currently at a destructive level globally. The effects of these links are complicated and interdependent, creating an urgent need of elucidating the role of environmental mismanagement to improve our resilience to future pandemics. This review focused on the pertinent role of forests, outdoor air, indoor air, solid waste and wastewater management in COVID-19 dissemination to analyze the opportunities prevailing to control infectious diseases considering relevant data from previous disease outbreaks. Global forest management is currently detrimental and hotspots of forest fragmentation have demonstrated to result in zoonotic disease emergences. Deforestation is reported to increase susceptibility to COVID-19 due to wildfire induced pollution and loss of forest ecosystem services. Detection of SARS-CoV-2 like viruses in multiple animal species also point to the impacts of biodiversity loss and forest fragmentation in relation to COVID-19. Available literature on air quality and COVID-19 have provided insights into the potential of air pollutants acting as plausible virus carrier and aggravating immune responses and expression of ACE2 receptors. SARS-CoV-2 is detected in outdoor air, indoor air, solid waste, wastewater and shown to prevail on solid surfaces and aerosols for prolonged hours. Furthermore, lack of protection measures and safe disposal options in waste management are evoking concerns especially in underdeveloped countries due to high infectivity of SARS-CoV-2. Inadequate legal framework and non-adherence to environmental regulations were observed to aggravate the postulated risks and vulnerability to future waves of pandemics. Our understanding underlines the urgent need to reinforce the fragile status of global environmental management systems through the development of strict legislative frameworks and enforcement by providing institutional, financial and technical supports.

Evaluation of urban solid-waste generation and safety consciousness of waste collectors amidst COVID-19 pandemic

This study investigates solid-waste handling practices by municipal waste collectors during COVID-19 pandemic period in Osogbo urban areas with the intention of assessing measures put in place for preventing possible spread of the disease. Data for the study were obtained from primary and secondary sources. Primary data were acquired through questionnaire administration on the 5% of waste collectors selected through snowball technique of chain referral. Data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistical methods. Adopted under this technique are cross-tabulation, percentages, index that was used determine waste generation (WGI), and protective material index (PMI) used by waste collectors before and during the lockdown periods. The result showed that rate of waste generation before the pandemic was WGI = 0.69 and during the pandemic was WGI = 0.75. The use of protective materials before COVID-19 was PMI = 2.9 as against (PMI = 3.58) during the lockdown period, with face mask recorded lowest occurrence of use (PMI =  - 2.91). Crude materials that cannot guarantee the safety of waste collectors are used for transfer of waste into disposal vehicle. The study concludes that solid-waste collectors in the study area are not adequately catered for during COVID-19 pandemic.

COVID-19 Impact on Public Health, Environment, Human Psychology, Global Socioeconomy, and Education

The end of the year 2019 was marked by the introduction of a third highly pathogenic coronavirus, after SARS-CoV (2003) and MERS-CoV (2012), in the human population which was officially declared a global pandemic by the World Health Organization (WHO) on March 11, 2020. Indeed, the pandemic of COVID-19 (Coronavirus Disease 19) has evolved at an unprecedented rate: after its emergence in Wuhan, the capital of the province of Hubei of the People's Republic of China, in December 2019, the total number of confirmed cases did not cease growing very quickly in the world. In this manuscript, we have provided an overview of the impact of COVID-19 on health, and we have proposed different nutrients suitable for infected patients to boost their immune systems. On the other hand, we have described the advantages and disadvantages of COVID-19 on the environment including the quality of water, air, waste management, and energy consumption, as well as the impact of this pandemic on human psychology, the educational system, and the global economy. In addition, we have tried to come up with some solutions to counter the negative repercussions of the pandemic.

Unmasking emerging issues in solid waste management: Knowledge and self-reported practices on the discarded disposable masks during the COVID-19 pandemic in the Philippines

The COVID-19 global health crisis has resulted in the emergence of a new type of solid waste-inappropriately discarded disposable masks (DMs)-posing serious risks to the public health and to the environment. This study assessed the knowledge-("K") and self-reported practices-("P") of the general public in DM waste management. A researcher-developed instrument was utilized to gather data with a reliability coefficient index of 0.94. The survey was participated in by 13,116 online users. Pearson r and multiple linear regression were performed to test the relationship between the participants' demographic characteristics and their K and P. Results revealed that the participants obtained a weighted mean and standard deviation of 1.15±0.10, which shows that 11,597 or 88.41% are knowledgeable on solid waste disposal and management. The self-reported practices of the participants obtained weighted mean and standard deviation rating of 2.16±0.10, which is interpreted as "Always Practiced". This signifies that the participants adequately practiced the essentials in disposing DMs. Furthermore, there is a significant relationship between K and P with their demographic characteristics on disposing DMs like age, sex, level of education, annual income, and type of residence. The obtained Pearson r=-0.178 (p<.01) indicates that the level of knowledge of the participants is significantly related to the practices they apply in disposing used DMs. As a recommendation, campaigns and interventions on the proper disposal of DMs should be put forward and implemented, utilizing various social media resources and platforms that are conveniently accessible to the general public.