Red Blood Cell Membrane as a Biomimetic Nanocoating for Prolonged Circulation Time and Reduced Accelerated Blood Clearance

Novel strategies for modulating the gut microbiome for cancer therapy

Recent advancements in genomics, transcriptomics, and metabolomics have significantly advanced our understanding of the human gut microbiome and its impact on the efficacy and toxicity of anti-cancer therapeutics, including chemotherapy, immunotherapy, and radiotherapy. In particular, prebiotics, probiotics, and postbiotics are recognized for their unique properties in modulating the gut microbiota, maintaining the intestinal barrier, and regulating immune cells, thus emerging as new cancer treatment modalities. However, clinical translation of microbiome-based therapy is still in its early stages, facing challenges to overcome physicochemical and biological barriers of the gastrointestinal tract, enhance target-specific delivery, and improve drug bioavailability. This review aims to highlight the impact of prebiotics, probiotics, and postbiotics on the gut microbiome and their efficacy as cancer treatment modalities. Additionally, we summarize recent innovative engineering strategies designed to overcome challenges associated with oral administration of anti-cancer treatments. Moreover, we will explore the potential benefits of engineered gut microbiome-modulating approaches in ameliorating the side effects of immunotherapy and chemotherapy.

Application of biomimetic nanovaccines in cancer immunotherapy: A useful strategy to help combat immunotherapy resistance

Breakthroughs in actual clinical applications have begun through vaccine-based cancer immunotherapy, which uses the body's immune system, both humoral and cellular, to attack malignant cells and fight diseases. However, conventional vaccine approaches still face multiple challenges eliciting effective antigen-specific immune responses, resulting in immunotherapy resistance. In recent years, biomimetic nanovaccines have emerged as a promising alternative to conventional vaccine approaches by incorporating the natural structure of various biological entities, such as cells, viruses, and bacteria. Biomimetic nanovaccines offer the benefit of targeted antigen-presenting cell (APC) delivery, improved antigen/adjuvant loading, and biocompatibility, thereby improving the sensitivity of immunotherapy. This review presents a comprehensive overview of several kinds of biomimetic nanovaccines in anticancer immune response, including cell membrane-coated nanovaccines, self-assembling protein-based nanovaccines, extracellular vesicle-based nanovaccines, natural ligand-modified nanovaccines, artificial antigen-presenting cells-based nanovaccines and liposome-based nanovaccines. We also discuss the perspectives and challenges associated with the clinical translation of emerging biomimetic nanovaccine platforms for sensitizing cancer cells to immunotherapy.

New insights into red blood cells in tumor precision diagnosis and treatment

Red blood cells (RBCs), which function as material transporters in organisms, are rich in materials that are exchanged with metabolically active tumor cells. Recent studies have demonstrated that tumor cells can regulate biological changes in RBCs, including influencing differentiation, maturation, and morphology. RBCs play an important role in tumor development and immune regulation. Notably, the novel scientific finding that RBCs absorb fragments of tumor-carrying DNA overturns the conventional wisdom that RBCs do not contain nucleic acids. RBC membranes are excellent biomimetic materials with significant advantages in terms of their biocompatibility, non-immunogenicity, non-specific adsorption resistance, and biodegradability. Therefore, RBCs provide a new research perspective for the development of tumor liquid biopsies, molecular imaging, drug delivery, and other tumor precision diagnosis and treatment technologies.

Nanoparticles Encapsulated in Red Blood Cell Membranes for Near-Infrared Second Window Imaging-Guided Photothermal-Enhanced Immunotherapy on Tumors

Photothermal therapy (PTT), which uses the high thermal conversion ability of photothermal agents to ablate tumor cells at high temperatures, has gained significant attention because it has the advantages of high selectivity and specificity, precise targeting of tumor sites, and low invasiveness and trauma. However, PTT guided by the NIR-I has limitations in tissue penetration depth, resulting in limited imaging monitoring and therapeutic effects on deep-seated tumor tissues. Moreover, nanoparticles are easily cleared by the immune system and difficult to passively target tumor sites during the process of treatment. To address these issues, we prepared nanoparticles using NIR-II dyes IR1048 and DSPE-PEG-OH and further encapsulated them in red blood cell membranes derived from mice. These biomimetic nanoparticles, called RDIR1048, showed reduced clearance by the immune system and had long circulation characteristics. They effectively accumulated at tumor sites, and strong fluorescence could still be observed at the tumor site 96 h after administration. Furthermore, through mouse thermal imaging experiments, we found that RDIR1048 exhibited good PTT ability. When used in combination with an immune checkpoint inhibitor, anti-PD-L1 antibodies, it enhanced the immunogenic cell death of tumor cells caused by PTT and improved the therapeutic effect of immunotherapy, which demonstrated good therapeutic efficacy in the treatment of tumor-bearing mice. This study provides a feasible basis for the future development of NIR-II nanoparticles with long circulation properties.

Recent advances in biomimetic cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for cancer therapy

The emerging strategy of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) via cellular membrane camouflage holds great promise in cancer therapy. This scholarly review explores the utilization of cellular membranes derived from diverse cellular entities; blood cells, immune cells, cancer cells, stem cells, and bacterial cells as examples of NP coatings. The camouflaging strategy endows NPs with nuanced tumor-targeting abilities such as self-recognition, homotypic targeting, and long-lasting circulation, thus also improving tumor therapy efficacy overall. The comprehensive examination encompasses a variety of cell membrane camouflaged NPs (CMCNPs), elucidating their underlying targeted therapy mechanisms and delineating diverse strategies for anti-cancer applications. Furthermore, the review systematically presents the synthesis of source materials and methodologies employed in order to construct and characterize these CMCNPs, with a specific emphasis on their use in cancer treatment.

Stealth Nanocarriers in Cancer Therapy: a Comprehensive Review of Design, Functionality, and Clinical Applications

Nanotechnology has significantly transformed cancer treatment by introducing innovative methods for delivering drugs effectively. This literature review provided an in-depth analysis of the role of nanocarriers in cancer therapy, with a particular focus on the critical concept of the 'stealth effect.' The stealth effect refers to the ability of nanocarriers to evade the immune system and overcome physiological barriers. The review investigated the design and composition of various nanocarriers, such as liposomes, micelles, and inorganic nanoparticles, highlighting the importance of surface modifications and functionalization. The complex interaction between the immune system, opsonization, phagocytosis, and the protein corona was examined to understand the stealth effect. The review carefully evaluated strategies to enhance the stealth effect, including surface coating with polymers, biomimetic camouflage, and targeting ligands. The in vivo behavior of stealth nanocarriers and their impact on pharmacokinetics, biodistribution, and toxicity were also systematically examined. Additionally, the review presented clinical applications, case studies of approved nanocarrier-based cancer therapies, and emerging formulations in clinical trials. Future directions and obstacles in the field, such as advancements in nanocarrier engineering, personalized nanomedicine, regulatory considerations, and ethical implications, were discussed in detail. The review concluded by summarizing key findings and emphasizing the transformative potential of stealth nanocarriers in revolutionizing cancer therapy. This review enhanced the comprehension of nanocarrier-based cancer therapies and their potential impact by providing insights into advanced studies, clinical applications, and regulatory considerations.

Comparison of cell delivery and cell membrane camouflaged PLGA nanoparticles in the delivery of shikonin for colorectal cancer treatment

Inspired by the "natural camouflage" strategy, cell-based biomimetic drug delivery systems (BDDS) have shown great potential in cancer therapy. Red blood cell (RBC) delivery vehicles and red blood cell membrane (RBCm)-camouflaged vehicles were commonly used strategies for drug delivery. We prepared shikonin-encapsulated PLGA nanoparticles (PLGA/SK) with different surface charges to obtain both RBC delivery and RBCm-camouflaged PLGA NPs. The physicochemical properties, in vivo circulation and antitumor effects of these biomimetic preparations were studied. Since the positive PLGA NPs may affect the morphology and function of RBCs, the biomimetic preparations prepared by the negative PLGA NPs showed better in vitro stability. However, positive PLGA NP-based biomimetic preparations exhibited longer circulation time and higher tumor region accumulation, leading to stronger anti-tumor effects. Meanwhile, the RBC delivery PLGA(+) NPs possessed better in vitro cytotoxicity, longer circulation time and higher tumor accumulation than RBCm-camouflaged PLGA(+) NPs. Collectively, RBC delivery vehicles possessed more potential than RBCm-camouflaged vehicles on drug delivery for tumor treatment, especially with positive NPs-loaded.

Cell membrane-coated nanoparticles for targeting carcinogenic bacteria

The etiology of cancers is multifactorial, with certain bacteria established as contributors to carcinogenesis. As the understanding of carcinogenic bacteria deepens, interest in cancer treatment through bacterial eradication is growing. Among emerging antibacterial platforms, cell membrane-coated nanoparticles (CNPs), constructed by enveloping synthetic substrates with natural cell membranes, exhibit significant promise in overcoming challenges encountered by traditional antibiotics. This article reviews recent advancements in developing CNPs for targeting carcinogenic bacteria. It first summarizes the mechanisms of carcinogenic bacteria and the status of cancer treatment through bacterial eradication. Then, it reviews engineering strategies for developing highly functional and multitasking CNPs and examines the emerging applications of CNPs in combating carcinogenic bacteria. These applications include neutralizing virulence factors to enhance bacterial eradication, exploiting bacterium-host binding for precise antibiotic delivery, and modulating antibacterial immunity to inhibit bacterial growth. Overall, this article aims to inspire technological innovations in developing CNPs for effective cancer treatment through oncogenic bacterial targeting.

Engineered Microorganisms for Advancing Tumor Therapy

Engineered microorganisms have attracted significant interest as a unique therapeutic platform in tumor treatment. Compared with conventional cancer treatment strategies, engineering microorganism-based systems provide various distinct advantages, such as the intrinsic capability in targeting tumors, their inherent immunogenicity, in situ production of antitumor agents, and multiple synergistic functions to fight against tumors. Herein, the design, preparation, and application of the engineered microorganisms for advanced tumor therapy are thoroughly reviewed. This review presents a comprehensive survey of innovative tumor therapeutic strategies based on a series of representative engineered microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, microalgae, and fungi. Specifically, it offers extensive analyses of the design principles, engineering strategies, and tumor therapeutic mechanisms, as well as the advantages and limitations of different engineered microorganism-based systems. Finally, the current challenges and future research prospects in this field, which can inspire new ideas for the design of creative tumor therapy paradigms utilizing engineered microorganisms and facilitate their clinical applications, are discussed.

Targeted delivery strategies: The interactions and applications of nanoparticles in liver diseases

In recent years, nanoparticles have been broadly utilized in various drugs delivery formulations. Nanodelivery systems have shown promise in solving problems associated with the distribution of hydrophobic drugs and have promoted the accumulation of nanomedicines in the circulation or in organs. However, the injection dose of nanoparticles (NPs) is much greater than that needed by diseased tissues or organs. In other words, most of the NPs are localized off-target and do not reach the desired tissue or organs. With the rapid development of biodegradable and biosafety nanomaterials, the nanovectors represent assurance of safety. However, the off-target effects also induce concerns about the application of NPs, especially in the delivery of gene editing tools. Therefore, a complete understanding of the biological responses to NPs in the body will clearly guide the design of targeted delivery of NPs. The different properties of various nanodelivery systems may induce diverse interactions between carriers and organs. In this review, we describe the relationship between the liver, the most influenced organ of systemic administration of NPs, and targeted delivery nanoplatforms. Various transport vehicles have adopted multiple delivery strategies for the targeted delivery to the cells in the homeostasis liver and in diseased liver. Additionally, nanodelivery systems provide a novel strategy for treating incurable diseases. The appearance of a targeted delivery has profoundly improved the application of NPs to liver diseases.

A combination of a TLR7/8 agonist and an epigenetic inhibitor suppresses triple-negative breast cancer through triggering anti-tumor immune

BACKGROUND

Combination therapy involving immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) and other drugs is a potential strategy for converting immune-cold tumors into immune-hot tumors to benefit from immunotherapy. To achieve drug synergy, we developed a homologous cancer cell membrane vesicle (CM)-coated metal-organic framework (MOF) nanodelivery platform for the codelivery of a TLR7/8 agonist with an epigenetic inhibitor.

METHODS

A novel biomimetic codelivery system (MCM@UN) was constructed by MOF nanoparticles UiO-66 loading with a bromodomain-containing protein 4 (BRD4) inhibitor and then coated with the membrane vesicles of homologous cancer cells that embedding the 18 C lipid tail of 3M-052 (M). The antitumor immune ability and tumor suppressive effect of MCM@UN were evaluated in a mouse model of triple-negative breast cancer (TNBC) and in vitro. The tumor immune microenvironment was analyzed by multicolor immunofluorescence staining.

RESULTS

In vitro and in vivo data showed that MCM@UN specifically targeted to TNBC cells and was superior to the free drug in terms of tumor growth inhibition and antitumor immune activity. In terms of mechanism, MCM@UN blocked BRD4 and PD-L1 to prompt dying tumor cells to disintegrate and expose tumor antigens. The disintegrated tumor cells released damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs), recruited dendritic cells (DCs) to efficiently activate CD8+ T cells to mediate effective and long-lasting antitumor immunity. In addition, TLR7/8 agonist on MCM@UN enhanced lymphocytes infiltration and immunogenic cell death and decreased regulatory T-cells (Tregs). On clinical specimens, we found that mature DCs infiltrating tumor tissues of TNBC patients were negatively correlated with the expression of BRD4, which was consistent with the result in animal model.

CONCLUSION

MCM@UN specifically targeted to TNBC cells and remodeled tumor immune microenvironment to inhibit malignant behaviors of TNBC.

Recent advances in cell membrane camouflaged nanotherapeutics for the treatment of bacterial infection

Infectious diseases caused by bacterial infections are common in clinical practice. Cell membrane coating nanotechnology represents a pioneering approach for the delivery of therapeutic agents without being cleared by the immune system in the meantime. And the mechanism of infection treatment should be divided into two parts: suppression of pathogenic bacteria and suppression of excessive immune response. The membrane-coated nanoparticles exert anti-bacterial function by neutralizing exotoxins and endotoxins, and some other bacterial proteins. Inflammation, the second procedure of bacterial infection, can also be suppressed through targeting the inflamed site, neutralization of toxins, and the suppression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. And platelet membrane can affect the complement process to suppress inflammation. Membrane-coated nanoparticles treat bacterial infections through the combined action of membranes and nanoparticles, and diagnose by imaging, forming a theranostic system. Several strategies have been discovered to enhance the anti-bacterial/anti-inflammatory capability, such as synthesizing the material through electroporation, pretreating with the corresponding pathogen, membrane hybridization, or incorporating with genetic modification, lipid insertion, and click chemistry. Here we aim to provide a comprehensive overview of the current knowledge regarding the application of membrane-coated nanoparticles in preventing bacterial infections as well as addressing existing uncertainties and misconceptions.

Antibody-Loading of Biological Nanocarrier Vesicles Derived from Red-Blood-Cell Membranes

Antibodies, disruptive potent therapeutic agents against pharmacological targets, face a barrier in crossing immune systems and cellular membranes. To overcome these, various strategies have been explored including shuttling via liposomes or biocamouflaged nanoparticles. Here, we demonstrate the feasibility of loading antibodies into exosome-mimetic nanovesicles derived from human red-blood-cell membranes, which can act as nanocarriers for intracellular delivery. Goat-antichicken antibodies are loaded into erythrocyte-derived nanovesicles, and their loading yields are characterized and compared with smaller dUTP-cargo molecules. Applying dual-color coincident fluorescence burst analyses, the loading yield of nanocarriers is rigorously profiled at the single-vesicle level, overcoming challenges due to size-heterogeneity and demonstrating a maximum antibody-loading yield of 38-41% at the optimal vesicle radius of 52 nm. The achieved average loading yields, amounting to 14% across the entire nanovesicle population, with more than two antibodies per loaded vesicle, are fully comparable to those obtained for the much smaller dUTP molecules loaded in the nanovesicles after additional exosome-spin-column purification. The results suggest a promising new avenue for therapeutic delivery of antibodies, potentially encompassing also intracellular targets and suitable for large-scale pharmacological applications, which relies on the exosome-mimetic properties, biocompatibility, and low-immunogenicity of bioengineered nanocarriers synthesized from human erythrocyte membranes.

Nanoformulations in Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Applications: Green Perspectives

This study provides a brief discussion of the major nanopharmaceuticals formulations as well as the impact of nanotechnology on the future of pharmaceuticals. Effective and eco-friendly strategies of biofabrication are also highlighted. Modern approaches to designing pharmaceutical nanoformulations (e.g., 3D printing, Phyto-Nanotechnology, Biomimetics/Bioinspiration, etc.) are outlined. This paper discusses the need to use natural resources for the "green" design of new nanoformulations with therapeutic efficiency. Nanopharmaceuticals research is still in its early stages, and the preparation of nanomaterials must be carefully considered. Therefore, safety and long-term effects of pharmaceutical nanoformulations must not be overlooked. The testing of nanopharmaceuticals represents an essential point in their further applications. Vegetal scaffolds obtained by decellularizing plant leaves represent a valuable, bioinspired model for nanopharmaceutical testing that avoids using animals. Nanoformulations are critical in various fields, especially in pharmacy, medicine, agriculture, and material science, due to their unique properties and advantages over conventional formulations that allows improved solubility, bioavailability, targeted drug delivery, controlled release, and reduced toxicity. Nanopharmaceuticals have transitioned from experimental stages to being a vital component of clinical practice, significantly improving outcomes in medical fields for cancer treatment, infectious diseases, neurological disorders, personalized medicine, and advanced diagnostics. Here are the key points highlighting their importance. The significant challenges, opportunities, and future directions are mentioned in the final section.

Application and advances of biomimetic membrane materials in central nervous system disorders

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases encompass spinal cord injuries, brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic strokes. Recently, there has been a growing global recognition of CNS disorders as a leading cause of disability and death in humans and the second most common cause of death worldwide. The global burdens and treatment challenges posed by CNS disorders are particularly significant in the context of a rapidly expanding global population and aging demographics. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) presents a challenge for effective drug delivery in CNS disorders, as conventional drugs often have limited penetration into the brain. Advances in biomimetic membrane nanomaterials technology have shown promise in enhancing drug delivery for various CNS disorders, leveraging properties such as natural biological surfaces, high biocompatibility and biosafety. This review discusses recent developments in biomimetic membrane materials, summarizes the types and preparation methods of these materials, analyzes their applications in treating CNS injuries, and provides insights into the future prospects and limitations of biomimetic membrane materials.

The Prospect of Biomimetic Immune Cell Membrane-Coated Nanomedicines for Treatment of Serious Bacterial Infections and Sepsis

Invasive bacterial infections and sepsis are persistent global health concerns, complicated further by the escalating threat of antibiotic resistance. Over the past 40 years, collaborative endeavors to improve the diagnosis and critical care of septic patients have improved outcomes, yet grappling with the intricate immune dysfunction underlying the septic condition remains a formidable challenge. Anti-inflammatory interventions that exhibited promise in murine models failed to manifest consistent survival benefits in clinical studies through recent decades. Novel therapeutic approaches that target bacterial virulence factors, for example with monoclonal antibodies, aim to thwart pathogen-driven damage and restore an advantage to the immune system. A pioneering technology addressing this challenge is biomimetic nanoparticles-a therapeutic platform featuring nanoscale particles enveloped in natural cell membranes. Borne from the quest for a durable drug delivery system, the original red blood cell-coated nanoparticles showcased a broad capacity to absorb bacterial and environmental toxins from serum. Tailoring the membrane coating to immune cell sources imparts unique characteristics to the nanoparticles suitable for broader application in infectious disease. Their capacity to bind both inflammatory signals and virulence factors assembles the most promising sepsis therapies into a singular, pathogen-agnostic therapeutic. This review explores the ongoing work on immune cell-coated nanoparticle therapeutics for infection and sepsis. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Invasive bacterial infections and sepsis are a major global health problem made worse by expanding antibiotic resistance, meaning better treatment options are urgently needed. Biomimetic cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles are an innovative therapeutic platform that deploys a multifaceted mechanism to action to neutralize microbial virulence factors, capture endotoxins, and bind excessive host proinflammatory cytokines, seeking to reduce host tissue injury, aid in microbial clearance, and improve patient outcomes.

Advances in Nanomaterials for Immunotherapeutic Improvement of Cancer Chemotherapy

Immuno-stimulative effect of chemotherapy (ISECT) is recognized as a potential alternative to conventional immunotherapies, however, the clinical application is constrained by its inefficiency. Metronomic chemotherapy, though designed to overcome these limitations, offers inconsistent results, with effectiveness varying based on cancer types, stages, and patient-specific factors. In parallel, a wealth of preclinical nanomaterials holds considerable promise for ISECT improvement by modulating the cancer-immunity cycle. In the area of biomedical nanomaterials, current literature reviews mainly concentrate on a specific category of nanomaterials and nanotechnological perspectives, while two essential issues are still lacking, i.e., a comprehensive analysis addressing the causes for ISECT inefficiency and a thorough summary elaborating the nanomaterials for ISECT improvement. This review thus aims to fill these gaps and catalyze further development in this field. For the first time, this review comprehensively discusses the causes of ISECT inefficiency. It then meticulously categorizes six types of nanomaterials for improving ISECT. Subsequently, practical strategies are further proposed for addressing inefficient ISECT, along with a detailed discussion on exemplary nanomedicines. Finally, this review provides insights into the challenges and perspectives for improving chemo-immunotherapy by innovations in nanomaterials.

Role of Natural Binding Proteins in Therapy and Diagnostics

This review systematically investigates the critical role of natural binding proteins (NBPs), encompassing DNA-, RNA-, carbohydrate-, fatty acid-, and chitin-binding proteins, in the realms of oncology and diagnostics. In an era where cancer continues to pose significant challenges to healthcare systems worldwide, the innovative exploration of NBPs offers a promising frontier for advancing both the diagnostic accuracy and therapeutic efficacy of cancer management strategies. This manuscript provides an in-depth examination of the unique mechanisms by which NBPs interact with specific molecular targets, highlighting their potential to revolutionize cancer diagnostics and therapy. Furthermore, it discusses the burgeoning research on aptamers, demonstrating their utility as 'nucleic acid antibodies' for targeted therapy and precision diagnostics. Despite the promising applications of NBPs and aptamers in enhancing early cancer detection and developing personalized treatment protocols, this review identifies a critical knowledge gap: the need for comprehensive studies to understand the diverse functionalities and therapeutic potentials of NBPs across different cancer types and diagnostic scenarios. By bridging this gap, this manuscript underscores the importance of NBPs and aptamers in paving the way for next-generation diagnostics and targeted cancer treatments.

Natural biomimetic nano-system for drug delivery in the treatment of rheumatoid arthritis: a literature review of the last 5 years

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is a chronic systemic autoimmune disease characterized primarily by synovitis, leading to the destruction of articular cartilage and bone and ultimately resulting in joint deformity, loss of function, and a significant impact on patients' quality of life. Currently, a combination of anti-rheumatic drugs, hormonal drugs, and biologics is used to mitigate disease progression. However, conventional drug therapy has limited bioavailability, and long-term use often leads to drug resistance and toxic side effects. Therefore, exploring new therapeutic approaches for RA is of great clinical importance. Nanodrug delivery systems offer promising solutions to overcome the limitations of conventional drugs. Among them, liposomes, the first nanodrug delivery system to be approved for clinical application and still widely studied, demonstrate the ability to enhance therapeutic efficacy with fewer adverse effects through passive or active targeting mechanisms. In this review, we provide a review of the research progress on the targeting mechanisms of various natural biomimetic nano-delivery systems in RA therapy. Additionally, we predict the development trends and application prospects of these systems, offering new directions for precision treatment of RA.

Recent advances in targeted drug delivery for the treatment of glioblastoma

Glioblastoma multiforme (GBM) is one of the highly malignant brain tumors characterized by significant morbidity and mortality. Despite the recent advancements in the treatment of GBM, major challenges persist in achieving controlled drug delivery to tumors. The management of GBM poses considerable difficulties primarily due to unresolved issues in the blood-brain barrier (BBB)/blood-brain tumor barrier (BBTB) and GBM microenvironment. These factors limit the uptake of anti-cancer drugs by the tumor, thus limiting the therapeutic options. Current breakthroughs in nanotechnology provide new prospects concerning unconventional drug delivery approaches for GBM treatment. Specifically, swimming nanorobots show great potential in active targeted delivery, owing to their autonomous propulsion and improved navigation capacities across biological barriers, which further facilitate the development of GBM-targeted strategies. This review presents an overview of technological progress in different drug administration methods for GBM. Additionally, the limitations in clinical translation and future research prospects in this field are also discussed. This review aims to provide a comprehensive guideline for researchers and offer perspectives on further development of new drug delivery therapies to combat GBM.

Cell membrane coated nanoparticles: cutting-edge drug delivery systems for osteoporosis therapy

Osteoporosis, characterized by a reduction in bone mineral density, represents a prevalent skeletal disorder with substantial global health implications. Conventional therapeutic strategies, exemplified by bisphosphonates and hormone replacement regimens, though effective, encounter inherent limitations and challenges. Recent years have witnessed the surge of cell-membrane-coated nanoparticles (CMNPs) as a promising intervention for osteoporosis, leveraging their distinct attributes including refined biocompatibility, heightened pharmaceutical payload capacity, as well as targeted drug release kinetics. However, a comprehensive review consolidating the application of CMNPs-based therapy for osteoporosis remains absent within the existing literature. In this review, we provide a concise overview of the distinctive pathogenesis associated with osteoporosis, alongside an in-depth exploration of the physicochemical attributes intrinsic to CMNPs derived from varied cellular sources. Subsequently, we explore the potential utility of CMNPs, elucidating emerging trends in their deployment for osteoporosis treatment through multifaceted therapeutic approaches. By linking the notable attributes of CMNPs with their roles in mitigating osteoporosis, this review serves as a catalyst for further advances in the design of advanced CMNPs tailored for osteoporosis management. Ultimately, such progress is promising for enhancing outcomes in anti-bone loss interventions, paving the way for clinical translation in the near future.

Red blood cell membrane-camouflaged gold-core silica shell nanorods for cancer drug delivery and photothermal therapy

Gold core mesoporous silica shell (AuMSS) nanorods are multifunctional nanomedicines that can act simultaneously as photothermal, drug delivery, and bioimaging agents. Nevertheless, it is reported that once administrated, nanoparticles can be coated with blood proteins, forming a protein corona, that directly impacts on nanomedicines' circulation time, biodistribution, and therapeutic performance. Therefore, it become crucial to develop novel alternatives to improve nanoparticles' half-life in the bloodstream. In this work, Polyethylenimine (PEI) and Red blood cells (RBC)-derived membranes were combined for the first time to functionalize AuMSS nanorods and simultaneously load acridine orange (AO). The obtained results revealed that the RBC-derived membranes promoted the neutralization of the AuMSS' surface charge and consequently improved the colloidal stability and biocompatibility of the nanocarriers. Indeed, the in vitro data revealed that PEI/RBC-derived membranes' functionalization also improved the nanoparticles' cellular internalization and was capable of mitigating the hemolytic effects of AuMSS and AuMSS/PEI nanorods. In turn, the combinatorial chemo-photothermal therapy mediated by AuMSS/PEI/RBC_AO nanorods was able to completely eliminate HeLa cells, contrasting with the less efficient standalone therapies. Such data reinforce the potential of AuMSS nanomaterials to act simultaneously as photothermal and chemotherapeutic agents.

Microfluidic-assisted formulation of cell membrane-camouflaged anisotropic nanostructures

Anisotropic gold (Au) nanostructures have been widely explored for various nanomedicine applications. While these nanomaterials have shown great promise for disease theranostics, particularly for cancer diagnosis and treatment, the utilization and clinical translation of anisotropic Au nanostructures have been limited by their high phagocytic uptake and clearance and low cancer targeting specificity. Numerous efforts have thus been made toward mitigating these challenges. Many conventional strategies, however, rely on all-synthetic materials, involve complex chemical processes, or have low product throughput and reproducibility. Herein, by integrating cell membrane coating and microfluidic technologies, a high-throughput bioinspired approach for synthesizing biomimetic anisotropic Au nanostructures with minimized phagocytic uptake and improved cancer cell targeting is reported. Through continuous hydrodynamic flow focusing, mixing, and sonication, Au nanostructures are encapsulated within the macrophage and cancer cell membrane vesicles effectively. The fabricated nanostructures are uniform and highly stable in serum. Importantly, the macrophage membrane vesicle-encapsulated Au nanostructures can be preferentially internalized by breast cancer cells, but not by macrophages. Overall, this study has demonstrated the feasibility of employing an integrated microfluidic-sonication technique to formulate uniform and highly stable biomimetic anisotropic nanostructures for enhanced cancer theranostic applications.

Advanced Nano-Drug Delivery Systems in the Treatment of Ischemic Stroke

In recent years, the frequency of strokes has been on the rise year by year and has become the second leading cause of death around the world, which is characterized by a high mortality rate, high recurrence rate, and high disability rate. Ischemic strokes account for a large percentage of strokes. A reperfusion injury in ischemic strokes is a complex cascade of oxidative stress, neuroinflammation, immune infiltration, and mitochondrial damage. Conventional treatments are ineffective, and the presence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) leads to inefficient drug delivery utilization, so researchers are turning their attention to nano-drug delivery systems. Functionalized nano-drug delivery systems have been widely studied and applied to the study of cerebral ischemic diseases due to their favorable biocompatibility, high efficiency, strong specificity, and specific targeting ability. In this paper, we briefly describe the pathological process of reperfusion injuries in strokes and focus on the therapeutic research progress of nano-drug delivery systems in ischemic strokes, aiming to provide certain references to understand the progress of research on nano-drug delivery systems (NDDSs).

The clinical regimens and cell membrane camouflaged nanodrug delivery systems in hematologic malignancies treatment

Hematologic malignancies (HMs), also referred to as hematological or blood cancers, pose significant threats to patients as they impact the blood, bone marrow, and lymphatic system. Despite significant clinical strategies using chemotherapy, radiotherapy, stem cell transplantation, targeted molecular therapy, or immunotherapy, the five-year overall survival of patients with HMs is still low. Fortunately, recent studies demonstrate that the nanodrug delivery system holds the potential to address these challenges and foster effective anti-HMs with precise treatment. In particular, cell membrane camouflaged nanodrug offers enhanced drug targeting, reduced toxicity and side effects, and/or improved immune response to HMs. This review firstly introduces the merits and demerits of clinical strategies in HMs treatment, and then summarizes the types, advantages, and disadvantages of current nanocarriers helping drug delivery in HMs treatment. Furthermore, the types, functions, and mechanisms of cell membrane fragments that help nanodrugs specifically targeted to and accumulate in HM lesions are introduced in detail. Finally, suggestions are given about their clinical translation and future designs on the surface of nanodrugs with multiple functions to improve therapeutic efficiency for cancers.

In situ bio-mineralized Mn nanoadjuvant enhances anti-influenza immunity of recombinant virus-like particle vaccines

Virus like particles (VLPs) have been well recognized as one of the most important vaccine platforms due to their structural similarity to natural viruses to induce effective humoral and cellular immune responses. Nevertheless, lack of viral nucleic acids in VLPs usually leads the vaccine candidates less efficient in provoking innate immune against viral infection. Here, we constructed a biomimetic dual antigen hybrid influenza nanovaccines THM-HA@Mn with robust immunogenicity via in situ synthesizing a stimulator of interferon genes (STING) agonist Mn3O4 inside the cavity of a recombinant Hepatitis B core antigen VLP (HBc VLP) having fused SpyTag and influenza M2e antigen peptides (Tag-HBc-M2e, THM for short), followed by conjugating a recombinant hemagglutinin (rHA) antigen on the surface of the nanoparticles through SpyTag/SpyCatcher ligating. Such inside Mn3O4 immunostimulator-outside rHA antigen design, together with the chimeric M2e antigen on the HBc skeleton, enabled the synthesized hybrid nanovaccines THM-HA@Mn to well imitate the spatial distribution of M2e/HA antigens and immunostimulant in natural influenza virus. In vitro cellular experiments indicated that compared with the THM-HA antigen without Mn3O4 and a mixture vaccine consisting of THM-HA + MnOx, the THM-HA@Mn hybrid nanovaccines showed the highest efficacies in dendritic cells uptake and in promoting BMDC maturation, as well as inducing expression of TNF-α and type I interferon IFN-β. The THM-HA@Mn also displayed the most sustained antigen release at the injection site, the highest efficacies in promoting the DC maturation in lymph nodes and germinal center B cells activation in the spleen of the immunized mice. The co-delivery of immunostimulant and antigens enabled the THM-HA@Mn nanovaccines to induce the highest systemic antigen-specific antibody responses and cellular immunogenicity in mice. Together with the excellent colloid dispersion stability, low cytotoxicity, as well as good biosafety, the synthetic hybrid nanovaccines presented in this study offers a promising strategy to design VLP-based vaccine with robust natural and adaptive immunogenicity against emerging viral pathogens.

Developments and Trends of Nanotechnology Application in Sepsis: A Comprehensive Review Based on Knowledge Visualization Analysis

Sepsis, a common life-threatening clinical condition, continues to have high morbidity and mortality rates, despite advancements in management. In response, significant research efforts have been directed toward developing effective strategies. Within this scope, nanotechnology has emerged as a particularly promising field, attracting significant interest for its potential to enhance disease diagnosis and treatment. While several reviews have highlighted the use of nanoparticles in sepsis, comprehensive studies that summarize and analyze the hotspots and research trends are lacking. To identify and further promote the development of nanotechnology in sepsis, a bibliometric analysis was conducted on the relevant literature, assessing research trends and hotspots in the application of nanomaterials for sepsis. Next, a comprehensive review of the subjectively recognized research hotspots in sepsis, including nanotechnology-enhanced biosensors and nanoscale imaging for sepsis diagnostics, and nanoplatforms designed for antimicrobial, immunomodulatory, and detoxification strategies in sepsis therapy, is elucidated, while the potential side effects and toxicity risks of these nanomaterials were discussed. Particular attention is given to biomimetic nanoparticles, which mimic the biological functions of source cells like erythrocytes, immune cells, and platelets to evade immune responses and effectively deliver therapeutic agents, demonstrating substantial translational potential. Finally, current challenges and future perspectives of nanotechnology applications in sepsis with a view to maximizing their great potential in the research of translational medicine are also discussed.

A biomimetic nanocarrier facilitates glucose consumption and reactive oxide species accumulation in enzyme therapy for colorectal cancer

Glucose oxidase (GOx)-based enzyme therapeutics are potential alternatives for colorectal cancer (CRC) treatment via glucose consumption and accumulation of hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Given that H2O2 can be eliminated by cytoprotective autophagy, autophagy inhibitors that can interrupt autolysosome-induced H2O2 elimination are promising combination drugs of GOx. Here, we developed a multifunctional biomimetic nanocarrier for effective co-delivery of an autophagy inhibitor-chloroquine phosphate (CQP) and GOx to exert their synergistic effect by irreversibly upregulating intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels. Poly (D, l-lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) were used to encapsulate both GOx and CQP using a W/O/W multi-emulsion method. Calcium phosphate (CaP) was used to "fix" CQP to GOx in the internal water phase, where it served as a pH-sensitive unit to facilitate intracellular drug release. Folic acid-modified red blood cell membranes (FR) were used to camouflage the GOx/CQP/CaP encapsulated PLGA NPs (referred to as PLGA/GCC@FR). In an AOM/DSS-induced CRC mouse model, PLGA/GCC@FR exhibited improved antitumor effects, in which the number of tumor nodes were only a quarter of that in the free drug combination group. The enhanced therapeutic effects of PLGA/GCC@FR were attributed to the prolonged tumor retention which was verified by both dynamic in vivo imaging and drug biodistribution. This multifunctional biomimetic nanocarrier facilitated combined enzyme therapeutics by depleting glucose and augmenting intracellular ROS levels in tumor cells, which exerted a synergistic inhibitory effect on tumor growth. Therefore, this study proposed a novel strategy for the enhancement of combined enzyme therapeutics, which provided a promising method for effective CRC treatment.

Cell-derived nanomaterials for biomedical applications

The ever-growing use of nature-derived materials creates exciting opportunities for novel development in various therapeutic biomedical applications. Living cells, serving as the foundation of nanoarchitectonics, exhibit remarkable capabilities that enable the development of bioinspired and biomimetic systems, which will be explored in this review. To understand the foundation of this development, we first revisited the anatomy of cells to explore the characteristics of the building blocks of life that is relevant. Interestingly, animal cells have amazing capabilities due to the inherent functionalities in each specialized cell type. Notably, the versatility of cell membranes allows red blood cells and neutrophils' membranes to cloak inorganic nanoparticles that would naturally be eliminated by the immune system. This underscores how cell membranes facilitate interactions with the surroundings through recognition, targeting, signalling, exchange, and cargo attachment. The functionality of cell membrane-coated nanoparticles can be tailored and improved by strategically engineering the membrane, selecting from a variety of cell membranes with known distinct inherent properties. On the other hand, plant cells exhibit remarkable capabilities for synthesizing various nanoparticles. They play a role in the synthesis of metal, carbon-based, and polymer nanoparticles, used for applications such as antimicrobials or antioxidants. One of the versatile components in plant cells is found in the photosynthetic system, particularly the thylakoid, and the pigment chlorophyll. While there are challenges in consistently synthesizing these remarkable nanoparticles derived from nature, this exploration begins to unveil the endless possibilities in nanoarchitectonics research.

M2 Macrophage Membrane-Camouflaged Fe3 O4 -Cy7 Nanoparticles with Reduced Immunogenicity for Targeted NIR/MR Imaging of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis （AS） is the primary reason behind cardiovascular diseases, leading to approximately one-third of global deaths. Developing a novel multi-model probe to detect AS is urgently required. Macrophages are the primary cells from which AS genesis occurs. Utilizing natural macrophage membranes coated on the surface of nanoparticles is an efficient delivery method to target plaque sites. Herein, Fe3 O4 -Cy7 nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 -Cy7 NPs), functionalized using an M2 macrophage membrane and a liposome extruder for Near-infrared fluorescence and Magnetic resonance imaging, are synthesized. These macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs) enhance the recognition and uptake using active macrophages. Moreover, they inhibit uptake using inactive macrophages and human coronary artery endothelial cells. The macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles (Fe3 O4 @M0 NPs, Fe3 O4 @M1 NPs, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs) can target specific sites depending on the macrophage membrane type and are related to C-C chemofactor receptor type 2 protein content. Moreover, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs demonstrate excellent biosafety in vivo after injection, showing a significantly higher Fe concentration in the blood than Fe3 O4 -Cy7 NPs. Therefore, Fe3 O4 @M2 NPs effectively retain the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles and depict reduced immunological response in blood circulation. These NPs mainly reveal enhanced targeting imaging capability for atherosclerotic plaque lesions.

Maintaining sidedness and fluidity in cell membrane coatings supported on nano-particulate and planar surfaces

Supported cell membrane coatings meet many requirements set to bioactive nanocarriers and materials, provided sidedness and fluidity of the natural membrane are maintained upon coating. However, the properties of a support-surface responsible for maintaining correct sidedness and fluidity are unknown. Here, we briefly review the properties of natural membranes and membrane-isolation methods, with focus on the asymmetric distribution of functional groups in natural membranes (sidedness) and the ability of molecules to float across a membrane to form functional domains (fluidity). This review concludes that hydrophilic sugar-residues of glycoproteins in the outer-leaflet of cell membranes direct the more hydrophobic inner-leaflet towards a support-surface to create a correctly-sided membrane coating, regardless of electrostatic double-layer interactions. On positively-charged support-surfaces however, strong, electrostatic double-layer attraction of negatively-charged membranes can impede homogeneous coating. In correctly-sided membrane coatings, fluidity is maintained regardless of whether the surface carries a positive or negative charge. However, membranes are frozen on positively-charged, highly-curved, small nanoparticles and localized nanoscopic structures on a support-surface. This leaves an unsupported membrane coating in between nanostructures on planar support-surfaces that is in dual-sided contact with its aqueous environment, yielding enhanced fluidity in membrane coatings on nanostructured, planar support-surfaces as compared with smooth ones.

Biomimetic Nano-Drug Delivery System: An Emerging Platform for Promoting Tumor Treatment

With the development of nanotechnology, nanoparticles (NPs) have shown broad prospects as drug delivery vehicles. However, they exhibit certain limitations, including low biocompatibility, poor physiological stability, rapid clearance from the body, and nonspecific targeting, which have hampered their clinical application. Therefore, the development of novel drug delivery systems with improved biocompatibility and high target specificity remains a major challenge. In recent years, biofilm mediated biomimetic nano-drug delivery system (BNDDS) has become a research hotspot focus in the field of life sciences. This new biomimetic platform uses bio-nanotechnology to encapsulate synthetic NPswithin biomimetic membrane, organically integrating the low immunogenicity, low toxicity, high tumor targeting, good biocompatibility of the biofilm with the adjustability and versatility of the nanocarrier, and shows promising applications in the field of precision tumor therapy. In this review, we systematically summarize the new progress in BNDDS used for optimizing drug delivery, providing a theoretical reference for optimizing drug delivery and designing safe and efficient treatment strategies to improve tumor treatment outcomes.

TME-Related Biomimetic Strategies Against Cancer

The tumor microenvironment (TME) plays an important role in various stages of tumor generation, metastasis, and evasion of immune monitoring and treatment. TME targeted therapy is based on TME components, related pathways or active molecules as therapeutic targets. Therefore, TME targeted therapy based on environmental differences between TME and normal cells has been widely studied. Biomimetic nanocarriers with low clearance, low immunogenicity, and high targeting have enormous potential in tumor treatment. This review introduces the composition and characteristics of TME, including cancer‑associated fibroblasts (CAFs), extracellular matrix (ECM), tumor blood vessels, non-tumor cells, and the latest research progress of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) based on TME. It also discusses the opportunities and challenges of clinical transformation of biomimetic nanoparticles.

Advanced nano-based strategies for mRNA tumor vaccine

Tumor vaccine is a promising strategy for cancer immunotherapy by introducing tumor antigens into the body to activate specific anti-tumor immune responses. Along with the technological breakthroughs in genetic engineering and delivery systems, messenger ribonucleic acid (mRNA) technology has achieved unprecedented development and application over the last few years, especially the emergency use authorizations of two mRNA vaccines during the COVID-19 pandemic, which has saved countless lives and makes the world witness the powerful efficacy of mRNA technology in vaccines. However, unlike infectious disease vaccines, which mainly induce humoral immunity, tumor vaccines also need to activate potent cellular immunity to control tumor growth, which creates a higher demand for mRNA delivery to the lymphatic organs and antigen-presenting cells (APCs). Here we review the existing bottlenecks of mRNA tumor vaccines and advanced nano-based strategies to overcome those challenges, as well as future considerations of mRNA tumor vaccines and their delivery systems.

Enhancing Cancer Chemo-Immunotherapy: Innovative Approaches for Overcoming Immunosuppression by Functional Nanomaterials

Chemotherapy is a critical modality in cancer therapy to combat malignant cell proliferation by directly attacking cancer cells and inducing immunogenic cell death, serving as a vital component of multi-modal treatment strategies for enhanced therapeutic outcomes. However, chemotherapy may inadvertently contribute to the immunosuppression of the tumor microenvironment (TME), inducing the suppression of antitumor immune responses, which can ultimately affect therapeutic efficacy. Chemo-immunotherapy, combining chemotherapy and immunotherapy in cancer treatment, has emerged as a ground-breaking approach to target and eliminate malignant tumors and revolutionize the treatment landscape, offering promising, durable responses for various malignancies. Notably, functional nanomaterials have substantially contributed to chemo-immunotherapy by co-delivering chemo-immunotherapeutic agents and modulating TME. In this review, recent advancements in chemo-immunotherapy are thus summarized to enhance treatment effectiveness, achieved by reversing the immunosuppressive TME (ITME) through the exploitation of immunotherapeutic drugs, or immunoregulatory nanomaterials. The effects of two-way immunomodulation and the causes of immunoaugmentation and suppression during chemotherapy are illustrated. The current strategies of chemo-immunotherapy to surmount the ITME and the functional materials to target and regulate the ITME are discussed and compared. The perspective on tumor immunosuppression reversal strategy is finally proposed.

Spatiotemporally sequential delivery of biomimetic liposomes potentiates glioma chemotherapy

As one of the most challenging cancers, glioma still lacks efficient therapeutic treatment in clinics. The dilemmas of nanodrug-based therapies for glioma are due not only the limited permeability of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) but also the deficiency of targeting tumor lesions. Thus, spatiotemporally sequential delivery of therapeutics from BBB-crossing to glioma accumulation is considered a strategy to obtain better outcomes. Here, we developed a biomimetic chemotherapy nanodrug composed of the hybrid membrane envelope of U87 cell membranes and RAW264.7 cell membranes, and the core of paclitaxel (PTX)-loaded liposome (PTX@C-MMCL). In the research, PTX@C-MMCL showed superior ability to cross the BBB via RAW264.7 cell membranes and accurate targeting to the brain tumor lesions relying on the homotypic targeting capacity of U87 cell membranes. Furthermore, PTX@C-MMCL can maintain a prolonged circulation in vivo. Importantly, PTX@C-MMCL effectively inhibited the development of glioma. Conclusively, our biomimetic nanodrug holds great potential for brain tumor targeting therapy.

Cell Membrane-Camouflaged Nanoparticles Mediated Nucleic Acids Delivery

Nucleic acids have emerged as promising therapeutic agents for many diseases because of their potential in modulating gene expression. However, the delivery of nucleic acids remains a significant challenge in gene therapy. Although viral vectors have shown high transfection efficiency, concerns regarding teratogenicity or carcinogenicity have been raised. Non-viral vehicles, including cationic polymers, liposomes, and inorganic materials possess advantages in terms of safety, ease of preparation, and low cost. Nevertheless, they also face limitations related to immunogenicity, quick clearance in vivo, and lack of targeting specificity. On the other hand, bioinspired strategies have shown increasing potential in the field of drug delivery, yet there is a lack of comprehensive reviews summarizing the rapid development of bioinspired nanoparticles based on the cell membrane camouflage to construct the nucleic acids vehicles. Herein, we enumerated the current difficulties in nucleic acid delivery with various non-viral vehicles and provided an overview of bioinspired strategies for nucleic acid delivery.

Progress of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy

In recent years, considerable attention has been given to phototherapy, including photothermal and photodynamic therapy to kill tumor cells by producing heat or reactive oxygen species (ROS). It has the high merits of noninvasiveness and limited drug resistance. To fully utilize this therapy, an extraordinary nanovehicle is required to target phototherapeutic agents in the tumor cells. Nanovesicles embody an ideal strategy for drug delivery applications. Cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles represent a developing type of nanocarrier. Combining this technique with cancer phototherapy could enable a novel strategy. Herein, efforts are made to describe a comprehensive overview of cell membrane-derived biomimetic nanovesicles for cancer phototherapy. The description in this review is mainly based on representative examples of exosome-derived biomimetic nanomedicine research, ranging from their comparison with traditional nanocarriers to extensive applications in cancer phototherapy. Additionally, the challenges and future prospectives for translating these for clinical application are discussed.

Cell Membrane-Derived Nanovehicles for Targeted Therapy of Ischemic Stroke: From Construction to Application

Ischemic stroke (IS) is a prevalent form of stroke and a leading cause of mortality and disability. Recently, cell membrane-derived nanovehicles (CMNVs) derived from erythrocytes, thrombocytes, neutrophils, macrophages, neural stem cells, and cancer cells have shown great promise as drug delivery systems for IS treatment. By precisely controlling drug release rates and targeting specific sites in the brain, CMNVs enable the reduction in drug dosage and minimization of side effects, thus significantly enhancing therapeutic strategies and approaches for IS. While there are some reviews regarding the applications of CMNVs in the treatment of IS, there has been limited attention given to important aspects such as carrier construction, structural design, and functional modification. Therefore, this review aims to address these key issues in CMNVs preparation, structural composition, modification, and other relevant aspects, with a specific focus on targeted therapy for IS. Finally, the challenges and prospects in this field are discussed.

Using Mesoporous Silica-Based Dual Biomimetic Nano-Erythrocytes for an Improved Antitumor Effect

The nano-delivery system with a dual biomimetic effect can penetrate deeper in tumor microenvironments (TMEs) and release sufficient antitumor drugs, which has attracted much attention. In this study, we synthesized erythrocyte-like mesoporous silica nanoparticles (EMSNs) as the core loaded with doxorubicin (DOX) and coated them with calcium phosphate (CaP) and erythrocyte membrane (EM) to obtain DOX/EsPMs. The transmission electron microscopy (TEM), fluorescent co-localization and protein bands of SDS-PAGE were used to confirm the complete fabrication of EsPMs. The EsPMs with erythrocyte-like shape exhibited superior penetration ability in in vitro diffusion and tumor-sphere penetration experiments. Intracellular Ca2+ and ROS detection experiments showed that the CaP membranes of EsPMs with pH-sensitivity could provide Ca2+ continuously to induce reactive oxide species' (ROS) generation in the TME. The EM as a perfect "camouflaged clothing" which could confuse macrophagocytes into prolonging blood circulation. Hemolysis and non-specific protein adsorption tests proved the desirable biocompatibility of EsPMs. An in vivo pharmacodynamics evaluation showed that the DOX/EsPMs group had a satisfactory tumor-inhibition effect. These advantages of the nano-erythrocytes suggest that by modifying the existing materials to construct a nano-delivery system, nanoparticles will achieve a biomimetic effect from both their structure and function with a facilitated and sufficient drug release profile, which is of great significance for antitumor therapy.

Biomembrane-Derived Nanoparticles in Alzheimer's Disease Therapy: A Comprehensive Review of Synthetic Lipid Nanoparticles and Natural Cell-Derived Vesicles

Current therapies for Alzheimer's disease used in the clinic predominantly focus on reducing symptoms with limited capability to control disease progression; thus, novel drugs are urgently needed. While nanoparticles (liposomes, high-density lipoprotein-based nanoparticles) constructed with synthetic biomembranes have shown great potential in AD therapy due to their excellent biocompatibility, multifunctionality and ability to penetrate the BBB, nanoparticles derived from natural biomembranes (extracellular vesicles, cell membrane-based nanoparticles) display inherent biocompatibility, stability, homing ability and ability to penetrate the BBB, which may present a safer and more effective treatment for AD. In this paper, we reviewed the synthetic and natural biomembrane-derived nanoparticles that are used in AD therapy. The challenges associated with the clinical translation of biomembrane-derived nanoparticles and future perspectives are also discussed.

Biomimetic nanoparticles in ischemic stroke therapy

Abstract

Ischemic stroke is one of the most severe neurological disorders with limited therapeutic strategies. The utilization of nanoparticle drug delivery systems is a burgeoning field and has been widely investigated. Among these, biomimetic drug delivery systems composed of biogenic membrane components and synthetic nanoparticles have been extensively highlighted in recent years. Biomimetic membrane camouflage presents an effective strategy to prolong circulation, reduce immunogenicity and enhance targeting. For one thing, biomimetic nanoparticles reserve the physical and chemical properties of intrinsic nanoparticle. For another, the biological functions of original source cells are completely inherited. Compared to conventional surface modification methods, this approach is more convenient and biocompatible. In this review, membrane-based nanoparticles derived from different donor cells were exemplified. The prospect of future biomimetic nanoparticles in ischemic stroke therapy was discussed.

Graphic abstract

Ginsenoside Rg3 endows liposomes with prolonged blood circulation and reduced accelerated blood clearance

PEGylated cholesterol-containing liposomes (Chol-PEG-lipo) have been widely used as a drug carrier for their good stealth property in blood circulation where cholesterol maintains the stability of the liposomal lipid bilayer and PEGylation endows liposomes with long circulation capability. However, cholesterol-related disadvantages and the accelerated blood clearance (ABC) phenomenon caused by PEGylation greatly limit the application of conventional stealth liposomes in clinic. Herein, ginsenoside Rg3 was selected to substitute cholesterol and PEG for liposomes preparation (Rg3-lipo). Rg3 was proved with similar liposomal membrane regulation ability to cholesterol and comparable long circulation effect to PEG. In addition, repeated administrations of Chol-PEG-lipo and Rg3-lipo were performed. The circulation time of the second dose of Chol-PEG-lipo was substantially reduced accompanied by a greatly increased accumulation in the liver due to the induction of anti-PEG IgM and the subsequent activated complement system. In contrast, no significantly increased level of relative plasma cells, IgM secretion and the complement activation in blood circulation was observed after the second injection of Rg3-lipo. As a result, Rg3-lipo showed great stealth property without ABC phenomenon. Therefore, developing liposomes utilizing Rg3 instead of PEG and cholesterol presents a promising strategy to prolong the blood circulation time of liposomes without triggering the ABC phenomenon and activated immune responses.

Extending the In Vivo Residence Time of Macrophage Membrane-Coated Nanoparticles through Genetic Modification

Nanoparticles coated with natural cell membranes have emerged as a promising class of biomimetic nanomedicine with significant clinical potential. Among them, macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles hold particular appeal due to their versatility in drug delivery and biological neutralization applications. This study employs a genetic engineering approach to enhance their in vivo residence times, aiming to further improve their performance. Specifically, macrophages are engineered to express proline-alanine-serine (PAS) peptide chains, which provide additional protection against opsonization and phagocytosis. The resulting modified nanoparticles demonstrate prolonged residence times when administered intravenously or introduced intratracheally, surpassing those coated with the wild-type membrane. The longer residence times also contribute to enhanced nanoparticle efficacy in inhibiting inflammatory cytokines in mouse models of lipopolysaccharide-induced lung injury and sublethal endotoxemia, respectively. This study underscores the effectiveness of genetic modification in extending the in vivo residence times of macrophage membrane-coated nanoparticles. This approach can be readily extended to modify other cell membrane-coated nanoparticles toward more favorable biomedical applications.

Cancer treatment and toxicity outlook of nanoparticles

Diversified nanosystems with tunable physicochemical attributes have emerged as potential solution to globally devastating cancer by offering novel possibilities for improving the techniques of cancer detection, imaging, therapies, diagnosis, drug delivery and treatment. Drug delivery systems based on nanoparticles (NPs) with ability of crossing different biological barriers are becoming increasingly popular. Besides, NPs are utilized in pharmaceutical sciences to mitigate the toxicity of conventional cancer therapeutics. However, significant NPs-associated toxicity, off-targeted activities, and low biocompatibility limit their utilization for cancer theranostics and can be hazardous to cancer patients up to life-threatening conditions. NPs interact with the biomolecules and disturb their regular function by aggregating inside cells and forming a protein corona, and the formulation turns ineffective in controlling cancer cell growth. The adverse interactions between NPs and biological entities can lead to life-threatening toxicities. This review focuses on the widespread use of various NPs including zinc oxide, titanium oxide, silver, and gold, which serve as efficient nano-vehicles and demonstrate notable pharmacokinetic and pharmacodynamic advantages in cancer therapy. Subsequently, the mechanism of nanotoxicity attached with these NPs, alternate solutions and their prospect to revolutionize cancer theranostics are highlighted. This review will serve as guide for future developments associated with high-performance NPs with controlled toxicity for establishing them as modern-age nanotools to manage cancer in tailored manner.

Colorectal cancer cell membrane biomimetic ferroferric oxide nanomaterials for homologous bio-imaging and chemotherapy application

The research of nanomaterials for bio-imaging and theranostic are very active nowadays with unprecedented advantages in nanomedicine. Homologous targeting and bio-imaging greatly improve the ability of targeted drug delivery and enhance active targeting and treatment ability of nanomedicine for the tumor. In this work, lycorine hydrochloride (LH) and magnetic iron oxide nanoparticles coated with a colorectal cancer (CRC) cell membrane (LH-Fe3O4@M) were prepared, for homologous targeting, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), and chemotherapy. Results showed that the LH-Fe3O4@M and Fe3O4@M intensity at HT29 tumor was significantly higher than that Fe3O4@PEG, proving the superior selectivity of cancer cell membrane-camouflaged nanomedicine for homologous tumors and the MRI effect of darkening contrast enhancement were remarkable at HT29 tumor. The LH-Fe3O4@M exhibited excellent chemotherapy effect in CRC models as well as LH alone and achieved a high tumor ablation rate but no damage to normal tissues and cells. Therefore, our biomimetic system achieved a homologous targeting, bio-imaging, and efficient therapeutic effect of CRC.

Effects of Individual Amino Acids on the Blood Circulation of Biosynthetic Protein Nanocages: Toward Guidance on Surface Engineering

Protein nanocages (PNCs) hold great promise for developing multifunctional nanomedicines. Long blood circulation is a key requirement of PNCs for most in vivo application scenarios. In addition to the classical PEGylation strategy, short peptides with a specific sequence screened via phage display are also very effective in prolonging the blood half-life (t1/2 ) of PNCs. However, there is a lack of knowledge on how individual amino acids affect the circulation of PNCs. Here the effects of the 20 proteinogenic amino acids in the form of an X3 or X5 tag (X represents an amino acid) are explored on the pharmacokinetics of PNCs, which lead to the formation of a heatmap illustrating the extent of t1/2 prolongation by each proteinogenic amino acid. Significantly, oligo-lysine and oligo-arginine can effectively prolong the t1/2 of strongly negatively charged PNCs through charge neutralization, while oligo-cysteine can also do so, but via a different mechanism, mediating the covalent binding of PNCs with plasma albumin as a stealth material. These findings are extendible and offer guidance for surface-engineering biosynthetic PNCs and other nanoparticles.

The interplay between PEGylated nanoparticles and blood immune system

During the last two decades, an increasing number of reports have pointed out that the immunogenicity of polyethylene glycol (PEG) may trigger accelerated blood clearance (ABC) and hypersensitivity reaction (HSR) to PEGylated nanoparticles, which could make PEG modification counterproductive. These phenomena would be detrimental to the efficacy of the load and even life-threatening to patients. Consequently, further elucidation of the interplay between PEGylated nanoparticles and the blood immune system will be beneficial to developing and applying related formulations. Many groups have worked to unveil the relevance of structural factors, dosing schedule, and other factors to the ABC phenomenon and hypersensitivity reaction. Interestingly, the results of some reports seem to be difficult to interpret or contradict with other reports. In this review, we summarize the physiological mechanisms of PEG-specific immune response. Moreover, we speculate on the potential relationship between the induction phase and the effectuation phase to explain the divergent results in published reports. In addition, the role of nanoparticle-associated factors is discussed based on the classification of the action phase. This review may help researchers to develop PEGylated nanoparticles to avoid unfavorable immune responses based on the underlying mechanism.

Surface Functionalization of Gold Nanoparticles for Targeting the Tumor Microenvironment to Improve Antitumor Efficiency

Gold nanoparticles (AuNPs) have undergone significant research for their use in the treatment of cancer. Numerous researchers have established their potent antitumor properties, which have greatly impacted the treatment of cancer. AuNPs have been used in four primary anticancer treatment modalities, namely radiation, photothermal therapy, photodynamic therapy, and chemotherapy. However, the ability of AuNPs to destroy cancer is lacking and can even harm healthy cells without the right direction to transport them to the tumor microenvironment. Consequently, a suitable targeting technique is needed. Based on the distinct features of the human tumor microenvironment, this review discusses four different targeting strategies that target the four key features of the tumor microenvironment, including abnormal vasculature, overexpression of specific receptors, an acidic microenvironment, and a hypoxic microenvironment, to direct surface-functionalized AuNPs to the tumor microenvironment and increase antitumor efficacies. In addition, some current completed or ongoing clinical trials of AuNPs will also be discussed below to further reinforce the concept of using AuNPs in anticancer therapy.

Oxygen-releasing biomaterials for regenerative medicine

Oxygen is critical to the survival, function and fate of mammalian cells. Oxygen tension controls cellular behavior through metabolic programming, which in turn controls tissue regeneration. A variety of biomaterials with oxygen-releasing capabilities have been developed to provide oxygen supply to ensure cell survival and differentiation for therapeutic efficacy, and to prevent hypoxia-induced tissue damage and cell death. However, controlling the oxygen release with spatial and temporal accuracy is still technically challenging. In this review, we provide a comprehensive overview of organic and inorganic materials available as oxygen sources, including hemoglobin-based oxygen carriers (HBOCs), perfluorocarbons (PFCs), photosynthetic organisms, solid and liquid peroxides, and some of the latest materials such as metal-organic frameworks (MOFs). Additionally, we introduce the corresponding carrier materials and the oxygen production methods and present state-of-the-art applications and breakthroughs of oxygen-releasing materials. Furthermore, we discuss the current challenges and the future perspectives in the field. After reviewing the recent progress and the future perspectives of oxygen-releasing materials, we predict that smart material systems that combine precise detection of oxygenation and adaptive control of oxygen delivery will be the future trend for oxygen-releasing materials in regenerative medicine.