Mesoporous Materials-Based Electrochemical Biosensors from Enzymatic to Nonenzymatic

Electrochemical and Plasmonic Detection of Myocardial Infarction Using Microfluidic Biochip Incorporated with Mesoporous Nanoscaffolds

This paper reports a microfluidic device for the electrochemical and plasmonic detection of cardiac myoglobin (cMb) and cardiac troponin I (cTnI) with noticeable limits of detection (LoD) as low as a few picograms per milliliter (pg/mL) ranges, achieved in a short detection time. The device features two working electrodes, each with a mesoporous Ni3V2O8 nanoscaffold grafted with reduced graphene oxide (rGO) that improves the interaction of diffusing analyte molecules with the sensing surface by providing a high surface area and reaction kinetics. Electrochemical studies reveal sensitivities as high as 9.68 μA ng/mL and a LoD of 2.0 pg/mL for cTnI, and 8.98 μA ng/mL and 4.7 pg/mL for cMb. Additionally, the surface plasmon resonance (SPR) studies demonstrate a low-level LoD of 8.8 pg/mL for cMb and 7.3 pg/mL for cTnI. The dual-modality sensor enables dynamic tracking of kinetic antigen-antibody interactions during sensing, self-verification through providing signals of two modes, and reduced false readout. This study demonstrates the complementary nature of the electrochemical and SPR modes in biosensing, with the electrochemical mode being highly sensitive and the SPR mode providing superior tracking of molecular recognition behaviors. The presented sensor represents a significant innovation in cardiovascular disease management and can be applied to monitor other clinically important biomolecules.

Bioinspired Photoactive Cu-Halide Coordination Polymers for Reduction Activation and Oxygen Conversion

Natural copper oxygenases provide fundamental principles for catalytic oxidation with kinetically inert molecular oxygen, but it remains a marked challenge to mimic both their structure and function in an entity. Inspired by the CuA enzymatic sites, herein we report two new photoactive binuclear copper-iodine- and bisbenzimidazole-comodified coordination polymers to reproduce the natural oxo-functionalization repertoire in a unique photocatalytic pathway. Under light irradiation, the Cu-halide coordination polymers effectively reduce NHP esters and complete oxygen reduction activation via photoinduced electron transfer for the aerobic oxidative coupling of hydroquinone with terminal alkynes, affording hydroxyl-functionalized ketones with high efficiency and selectivity. This supramolecular approach to developing bioinspired artificial oxygenases that merge transition metal- and photocatalysis supplies a new way to fabricate distinctive photocatalysts with desirable catalytic performances and controllable precise active sites.

Glucose Oxidase Loading in Ordered Porous Aluminosilicates: Exploring the Potential of Surface Modification for Electrochemical Glucose Sensing

Enzymatic electrochemical sensors have become the leading glucose detection technology due to their rapid response, affordability, portability, selectivity, and sensitivity. However, the performance of these sensors is highly dependent on the surface properties of the electrode material used to store glucose oxidase and its ability to retain enzymatic activity under variable environmental conditions. Mesoporous thin films have recently attracted considerable attention as promising candidates for enzyme storage and activity preservation due to their well-defined nanoarchitecture and tunable surface properties. Herein, we systematically compare pathways for the immobilization of glucose oxidase (GOx) and their effectiveness in electrochemical glucose sensing, following modification protocols that lead to the electrostatic attraction (amino functionalization), covalent bonding (aldehyde functionalization), and electrostatic repulsion (oxygen plasma treatment) of the ordered porous aluminosilicate-coated electrodes. By direct comparison using a quartz crystal microbalance, we demonstrate that glucose oxidase can be loaded in a nanoarchitecture with a pore size of ∼50 nm and pore interconnections of ∼35 nm using the native aluminosilicate surface, as well as after amino or aldehyde surface modification, while oxygen plasma exposure of the native surface inhibits glucose oxidase loading. Despite a variety of routes for enzyme loading, quantitative electrochemical glucose sensing between 0 and 20 mM was only possible when the porous surface was functionalized with amino groups, which we relate to the role of surface chemistry in accessing the underlying substrate. Our results highlight the impact of rational surface modification on electrochemical biosensing performance and demonstrate the potential of tailoring porous nanoarchitecture surfaces for biosensing applications.

Recent Advances in Bimetallic Nanoporous Gold Electrodes for Electrochemical Sensing

Bimetallic nanocomposites and nanoparticles have received tremendous interest recently because they often exhibit better properties than single-component materials. Improved electron transfer rates and the synergistic interactions between individual metals are two of the most beneficial attributes of these materials. In this review, we focus on bimetallic nanoporous gold (NPG) because of its importance in the field of electrochemical sensing coupled with the ease with which it can be made. NPG is a particularly important scaffold because of its unique properties, including biofouling resistance and ease of modification. In this review, several different methods to synthesize NPG, along with varying modification approaches are described. These include the use of ternary alloys, immersion-reduction (chemical, electrochemical, hybrid), co-electrodeposition-annealing, and under-potential deposition coupled with surface-limited redox replacement of NPG with different metal nanoparticles (e.g., Pt, Cu, Pd, Ni, Co, Fe, etc.). The review also describes the importance of fully characterizing these bimetallic nanocomposites and critically analyzing their structure, surface morphology, surface composition, and application in electrochemical sensing of chemical and biochemical species. The authors attempt to highlight the most recent and advanced techniques for designing non-enzymatic bimetallic electrochemical nanosensors. The review opens up a window for readers to obtain detailed knowledge about the formation and structure of bimetallic electrodes and their applications in electrochemical sensing.

Ordered Mesoporous Electrodes for Sensing Applications

Electrochemical sensors have become increasingly relevant in fields such as medicine, environmental monitoring, and industrial process control. Selectivity, specificity, sensitivity, signal reproducibility, and robustness are among the most important challenges for their development, especially when the target compound is present in low concentrations or in complex analytical matrices. In this context, electrode modification with Mesoporous Thin Films (MTFs) has aroused great interest in the past years. MTFs present high surface area, uniform pore distribution, and tunable pore size. Furthermore, they offer a wide variety of electrochemical signal modulation possibilities through molecular sieving, electrostatic or steric exclusion, and preconcentration effects which are due to mesopore confinement and surface functionalization. In order to fully exploit these advantages, it is central to develop reproducible routes for sensitive, selective, and robust MTF-modified electrodes. In addition, it is necessary to understand the complex mass and charge transport processes that take place through the film (particularly in the mesopores, pore surfaces, and interfaces) and on the electrode in order to design future intelligent and adaptive sensors. We present here an overview of MTFs applied to electrochemical sensing, in which we address their fabrication methods and the transport processes that are critical to the electrode response. We also summarize the current applications in biosensing and electroanalysis, as well as the challenges and opportunities brought by integrating MTF synthesis with electrode microfabrication, which is critical when moving from laboratory work to in situ sensing in the field of interest.

Superassembly of 4-Aminothiophenol-Modified Mesoporous Titania-Alumina Oxide Heterochannels for Smart Ion Transport Based on the Photo-Induced Electron-Transfer Process

Light-responsive nanochannels have attracted extensive attention due to their noninvasive external field control and intelligent ion regulation. However, the limited photoresponsive current and the low photoelectric conversion efficiency still restrict their development. Here, a light-controlled nanochannel composed of 4-aminothiophenol and gold nanoparticles-modified mesoporous titania nanopillar arrays and alumina oxide (4-ATP-Au-MTI/AAO) is fabricated by the interfacial super-assembly strategy. Inspired by the process of electron transfer between photosystem I and photosystem II, the efficient electron transfer between TiO₂, AuNPs, and 4-ATP under light is achieved by coupling the photoresponsive materials and functional molecules. Under illumination, 4-ATP is oxidized to p-nitrothiophenol (PNTP), which brings about changes in the wettability of the nanochannel, resulting in significant improvement (252.8%) of photoresponsive current. In addition, under the action of the reductant, the nanochannels can be restored to the initial dark state, enabling multiple reversible cycles. This work opens a new route for the fabrication of high-performance light-controlled nanochannels by coupling light-responsive materials and light-responsive molecules, which may guide the development of photoelectric conversion nanochannel systems.

Engineered Escherichia coli as a Controlled-Release Biocarrier for Electrochemical Immunoassay

Micro/nanocarriers hold great potential in bioanalysis for molecular recognition and signal amplification but are frequently hampered by harsh synthesis conditions and time-consuming labeling processes. Herein, we demonstrate that Escherichia coli (Ec) can be engineered as an efficient biocarrier for electrochemical immunoassay, which can load ultrahigh amounts of redox indicators and simultaneously be decorated with detection antibodies via a facile polydopamine (PDA)-mediated coating approach. Compared with conventional carrier materials, the entire preparation of the Ec biocarrier is simple, highly sustainable, and reproducible. Moreover, immune recognition and electrochemical transduction are performed independently, which eliminates the accumulation of biological interference on the electrode and simplifies electrode fabrication. Using human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) as the model target, the proposed immunosensor exhibits excellent analytical performance with a low detection limit of 35 pg/mL. The successful design and deployment of Ec biocarrier may provide new guidance for developing biohybrids in biosensing applications.

Integration of enzyme-encapsulated mesoporous silica between nanohole array electrode and hydrogel film for flow-type electrochemical biosensor

We herein propose a simple and sensitive electrochemical flow biosensor platform without an external flow device. The sensing unit comprises a platinum nanohole array electrode deposited on a nanoporous track-etched membrane (PtNH/NPM), a packed-layer of glucose oxidase-encapsulated mesoporous silica particles (GOD/MPS), and bovine serum albumin hydrogel film (BSA gel film). This sensing unit was fixed at the open window at the side of the plastic container with internal solution containing NaCl as osmotic reagent. When the sample glucose solution (0.10 mL) was pipetted at the sensing unit, a portion of the sample solution (5 μL) was spontaneously transferred into the BSA gel film. The concentration gradient of NaCl between the internal solution and the BSA gel film induced osmotic flow of water toward the internal solution. This osmotic flow assisted delivery of glucose to the GOD/MPS and enzymatically generated H₂O₂ to the PtNH/NPM. The proposed sensor could be used repeatedly and produced a linear current response for glucose, with a limit of detection of 16 μM. These sensor performances confirmed availability of the sensor design utilizing the osmotic flow.

A Novel Microfluidic-Based OMC-PEDOT-PSS Composite Electrochemical Sensor for Continuous Dopamine Monitoring

Fast and precise analysis techniques using small sample volumes are required for next-generation clinical monitoring at the patient's bedside, so as to provide the clinician with relevant chemical data in real-time. The integration of an electrochemical sensor into a microfluidic chip allows for the achievement of real-time chemical monitoring due to the low consumption of analytes, short analysis time, low cost, and compact size. In this work, dopamine, used as a model, is an important neurotransmitter responsible for controlling various vital life functions. The aim is to develop a novel serpentine microfluidic-based electrochemical sensor, using a screen-printed electrode for continuous dopamine detection. The developed sensor employed the composite of ordered mesoporous carbon (OMC) and poly (3,4 ethylenedioxythiophene)-poly (styrene sulfonate) (PEDOT-PSS). The performance of a microfluidic, integrated with the sensor, was amperometrically evaluated using a computer-controlled microfluidic platform. The microfluidic-based dopamine sensor exhibited a sensitivity of 20.2 ± 0.6 μA μmol L^-1, and a detection limit (LOD) of 21.6 ± 0.002 nmol L^-1, with high selectivity. This microfluidic-based electrochemical sensor was successfully employed to determine dopamine continuously, which could overcome the problem of sensor fouling with more than 90% stability for over 24 h. This novel microfluidic sensor platform provides a powerful tool for the development of a continuous dopamine detection system for human clinical application.

Self-organization of unimolecular micelles in beam stream for functional mesoporous metal oxide nanofibers

The use of linear amphiphilic block copolymers as templates is an important method for the preparation of mesoporous materials. However, the obtained assemblies are usually sensitive to synthetic conditions, which impedes the preparation of such mesoporous materials in certain environments. Herein, we report a universal strategy applying an amphiphilic multi-arm triblock copolymer in the preparation of mesoporous metal oxide nanofibers (NFs) using one metal oxide (TiO2, ZrO2, WO3, CeO2), or two (TiO2/WO3, TiO2/ZrO2, TiO2/CeO2) and three (TiO2/WO3/CuO) metal oxides as composites. The template consists of modified β-cyclodextrin as the center of the macromolecule which is attached sequentially to a block of polystyrene, poly(acrylic acid), and poly(ethylene oxide). Under electrospinning conditions, stable unimolecular micelles are formed and effectively co-assemble with metal ions to form fibrous nanostructures. As indicated by various characterization methods, the synthesized TiO2 and its derived composite NFs maintain a straight and continuous fibrous structure after calcination, and TiO2 NFs exhibit uniform mesopores of 10.8 nm in diameter and a large Brunauer-Emmett-Teller surface area of 143.3 m2 g-1. Benefiting from the characteristic structure, still present after modification, Pt-decorated mesoporous TiO2 NFs display excellent ability in the visible-light photocatalytic degradation of tetracycline, which is superior to the commercial P25 catalyst. This study reveals a promising strategy for the preparation of fibrous mesoporous metal oxides.

High-performance paper-based biocathode fabricated by screen-printing an improved mesoporous carbon ink and by oriented immobilization of bilirubin oxidase

In this study, the performance of a paper-based, screen-printed biofuel cell with mesoporous MgO-templated carbon (MgOC) electrodes was improved in two steps. First, a small amount of carboxymethyl cellulose (CMC) was added to the MgOC ink. Next, the cathode was modified with bilirubin prior to immobilizing the bilirubin oxidase (BOD). The CMC increased the accessibility of the mesopores of the MgOC, and subsequently, the performance of both the bioanode and biocathode. CMC also likely increased the stability of the electrodes. The pre-modification with bilirubin improved the orientation of the BOD, which facilitated direct electron transfer. With these two steps, an open circuit potential of 0.65 V, a maximal current density of 1.94 mA cm⁻², and a maximal power density of 465 μW cm⁻² was achieved with lactate oxidase as bioanode enzyme and lactate as fuel. This is one of the highest reported performances for a biofuel cell.

Voltage-Gated Electrocatalysis of Efficient and Selective Methane Oxidation by Tricopper Clusters under Ambient Conditions

Selective methane oxidation is difficult chemistry. Here we describe a strategy for the electrocatalysis of selective methane oxidation by immobilizing tricopper catalysts on the cathodic surface. In the presence of dioxygen and methane, the activation of these catalysts above a threshold cathodic potential can initiate the dioxygen chemistry for O atom transfer to methane. The catalytic turnover is completed by facile electron injections into the tricopper catalysts from the electrode. This technology leads to dramatic enhancements in performance of the catalysts toward methane oxidation. Unprecedented turnover frequencies (>40 min^-1) and high product throughputs (turnover numbers >30 000 in 12 h) are achieved for this challenging chemical transformation in water under ambient conditions. The technology is green and suitable for on-site direct conversion of methane into methanol.

Interfacial Superassembly of Mesoporous Titania Nanopillar-Arrays/Alumina Oxide Heterochannels for Light- and pH-Responsive Smart Ion Transport

Stimuli-responsive nanochannels have attracted extensive attention in various fields owing to their precise regulation ability of ionic transportation. However, the poor controllability and functionality as well as responding to only one type of external stimulus still impede the development of the smart nanochannels. Here, we demonstrate a novel heterogeneous membrane composed of ordered mesoporous titania nanopillar-arrays/anodic aluminum oxide (MTI/AAO) using an interfacial superassembly strategy, which can achieve intelligent light and pH multimodulation ion transport. The MTI/AAO membranes are generated through the self-assembly of templates, followed by interfacial superassembly of micelles on AAO, and then the nanostructure and phase transformation of titania. The presence of the MTI layer with anatase crystal endows the heterogeneous membrane with an excellent light-responsive current density of 219.2 μA·cm^-2, which is much higher than that of a reported traditional light-responsive nanofluidic device. Furthermore, the MTI/AAO heterogeneous membranes with an asymmetric structure exhibit excellent rectification performance. Moreover, pH-regulated surface charge polarity leads to a reversal of current rectification polarity. This light and pH multiresponsive membrane realizes efficient, sensitive, and stable ion regulation, extending the traditional nanochannel from single modulation to smart multimodulation.

Solvent Vapor Annealing for Controlled Pore Expansion of Block Copolymer-Assembled Inorganic Mesoporous Films

Mesoporous inorganic thin films are promising materials architectures for a variety of high-value applications, ranging from optical coatings and purification membranes to sensing and energy storage devices. Having precise control over the structural parameters of the porous network is crucial for broadening their applicability. To this end, the use of block copolymers (BCP) as sacrificial structure-directing agents via micelle coassembly is a particularly attractive route, since the resultant pore size is directly related to scaling laws for the radius of gyration of the pore-forming macromolecule. However, tailoring the molecular weight of the BCP via bespoke synthesis is an elaborate process that requires precise control over highly sensitive reactions conditions. Alternative methods have emerged, based on supramolecular assembly or the addition of different swelling agents. Nevertheleses, to date, these present a negative impact on the structural order and pore size dispersity of the final inorganic mesoporous films. In this work, we propose a novel and effective method for control over pore size, porosity, and structural order, which relies on a synergistic combination of BCP selective swelling via solvent vapor annealing (SVA) and locking of the structure by condensation of the inorganic sol-gel precursors. The results obtained in this work for TiO₂ establish SVA as a new, straightforward, simple, and powerful route for the fabrication of mesoporous thin-film materials with controllable structural characteristics.

Mesoporous Core-Shell Pd@Pt Nanospheres as Oxidase Mimics with Superhigh Catalytic Efficiency at Room Temperature

Mesoporous Pt-Pd bimetallic core-shell nanospheres (mPd@Pt NSs) with palladium-rich cores and platinum-rich shells were synthesized via a simple, two-step, wet chemical strategy mediated by nitrogen-doped carbon dots. The BET surface area of mPd@Pt NSs was found to be 210.4 m²·g^-1, which is significantly higher than the currently reported unsupported Pt-based nanomaterials. Because of the large active surface area, the as-prepared mPd@Pt NSs show superhigh oxidase activity and exhibit excellent oxidase-like catalytic efficiency with a catalytic constant (K_cat) as high as 2.1 × 10³ s^-1 at room temperature, which is of the same order of magnitude as the natural horseradish peroxidase (HRP) (K_cat = 4.3 × 10³ s^-1) at 37 °C and five-fold greater than the reported K_cat values of oxidase-like nanozyme obtained at 30 °C.

Fast CO2 hydration kinetics impair heterogeneous but improve enzymatic CO2 reduction catalysis

The performance of heterogeneous catalysts for electrocatalytic CO₂ reduction (CO₂R) suffers from unwanted side reactions and kinetic inefficiencies at the required large overpotential. However, immobilised CO₂R enzymes — such as formate dehydrogenase — can operate with high turnover and selectivity at a minimal overpotential and are therefore ‘ideal’ model catalysts. Here, through the co-immobilisation of carbonic anhydrase, we study the effect of CO₂ hydration on the local environment and performance of a range of disparate CO₂R systems from enzymatic (formate dehydrogenase) to heterogeneous systems. We show that the co-immobilisation of carbonic anhydrase increases the kinetics of CO₂ hydration at the electrode. This benefits enzymatic CO₂ reduction — despite the decrease in CO₂ concentration — due to a reduction in local pH change, whereas it is detrimental to heterogeneous catalysis (on Au), because the system is unable to suppress the H₂ evolution side reaction. Understanding the role of CO₂ hydration kinetics within the local environment on the performance of electrocatalyst systems provides important insights for the development of next generation synthetic CO₂R catalysts.

Fabricated Metal-Organic Frameworks (MOFs) as luminescent and electrochemical biosensors for cancer biomarkers detection

In the health domain, a major challenge is the detection of diseases using rapid and cost-effective techniques. Most of the existing cancer detection methods show poor sensitivity and selectivity and are time consuming with high cost. To overcome this challenge, we analyzed porous fabricated metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) that have better structures and porosities for enhanced biomarker sensing. Here, we summarize the use of fabricated MOF luminescence and electrochemical sensors in devices for cancer biomarker detection. Various strategies of fabrication and the role of fabricated materials in sensing cancer biomarkers have been studied and described. The structural properties, sensing mechanisms, roles of noncovalent interactions, limits of detection, modeling, advantages, and limitations of MOF sensors have been well-discussed. The study presents an innovative technique to detect the cancer biomarkers by the use of luminescence and electrochemical MOF sensors. In addition, the potential association studies have been opening the way for personalized patient treatments and the development of new cancer-detecting devices.

Polyaniline nanowire arrays generated through oriented mesoporous silica films: effect of pore size and spectroelectrochemical response

Indium-tin oxide electrodes modified with vertically aligned silica nanochannel membranes have been produced by electrochemically assisted self-assembly of cationic surfactants (cetyl- or octadecyl-trimethylammonium bromide) and concomitant polycondensation of the silica precursors (tetraethoxysilane). They exhibited pore diameters in the 2-3 nm range depending on the surfactant used. After surfactant removal, the bottom of mesopores was derivatized with aminophenyl groups via electrografting (i.e., electrochemical reduction of in situ generated aminophenyl monodiazonium salt). These species covalently bonded to the ITO substrate were then exploited to grow polyaniline nanofilaments by electropolymerization of aniline through the nanochannels. Under potentiostatic conditions, the length of polyaniline wires is controllable by tuning the electropolymerization time. From cyclic voltammetry characterization performed either before or after dissolution of the silica template, it appeared that both the polyaniline/silica composite and the free polyaniline nanowire arrays were electroactive, yet with much larger peak currents in the latter case as a result of larger effective surface area offered to the electrolyte solution. At identical electropolymerization time, the amount of deposited polyaniline was larger when using the silica membrane with larger pore diameter. All polyaniline deposits exhibited electrochromic properties. However, the spectroelectrochemical data indicated more complete interconversion between the coloured oxidized form and colourless reduced polyaniline for the arrays of nanofilaments in comparison to bulky films. In addition, the template-free nanowire arrays (i.e., after silica dissolution) were characterized by faster electrochromic behaviour than the polyaniline/silica hybrid, confirming the potential interest of such polyaniline nano-brushes for practical applications.

Design considerations of aptasensors for continuous monitoring of biomarkers in digestive tract fluids

We present a porous Si (PSi)-based label-free optical biosensor for sensitive and continuous detection of a model target protein biomarker in gastrointestinal (GI) tract fluids. The biosensing platform is designed to continuously monitor its target protein within the complex GI fluids without sample preparation and washing steps. An oxidized PSi Fabry-Pérot thin films are functionalized with aptamers, which are used as the capture probes. The optical response of the aptamer-conjugated PSi is studied upon exposure to unprocessed GI fluids, originated from domestic pigs, spiked with the target protein. We investigate biological and chemical surface passivation methods to stabilize the surface and reduce non-specific adsorption of interfering proteins and molecules within the GI fluids. For the passivated PSi aptasensor we simulate continuous in vivo biosensing conditions, demonstrating that the aptasensor could successfully detect the target in a continuous manner without any need for surface washing after the target protein binding events, at a clinically relevant range. Furthermore, we simulate biosensing conditions within a smart capsule, in which the aptasensor is occasionally exposed to GI fluids in flow or via repeated cycles of injection and static incubation events. Such biosensor can be implemented within ingestible capsule devices and used for in situ biomarker detection in the GI tract.

Insights on Alanine and Arginine Binding to Silica with Atomic Resolution

Interactions of biomolecules with inorganic oxide surfaces such as silica in aqueous solutions are of profound interest in various research fields, including chemistry, biotechnology, and medicine. While there is a general understanding of the dominating electrostatic interactions, the binding mechanism is still not fully understood. Here, chromatographic zonal elution and flow microcalorimetry experiments were combined with molecular dynamic simulations to describe the interaction of different capped amino acids with the silica surface. We demonstrate that ion pairing is the dominant electrostatic interaction. Surprisingly, the interaction strength is more dependent on the repulsive carboxy group than on the attracting amino group. These findings are essential for conducting experimental and simulative studies on amino acids when transferring the results to biomolecule-surface interactions.

Recent Advances in the Use of Mesoporous Silica Nanoparticles for the Diagnosis of Bacterial Infections

Public awareness of infectious diseases has increased in recent months, not only due to the current COVID-19 outbreak but also because of antimicrobial resistance (AMR) being declared a top-10 global health threat by the World Health Organization (WHO) in 2019. These global issues have spiked the realization that new and more efficient methods and approaches are urgently required to efficiently combat and overcome the failures in the diagnosis and therapy of infectious disease. This holds true not only for current diseases, but we should also have enough readiness to fight the unforeseen diseases so as to avoid future pandemics. A paradigm shift is needed, not only in infection treatment, but also diagnostic practices, to overcome the potential failures associated with early diagnosis stages, leading to unnecessary and inefficient treatments, while simultaneously promoting AMR. With the development of nanotechnology, nanomaterials fabricated as multifunctional nano-platforms for antibacterial therapeutics, diagnostics, or both (known as "theranostics") have attracted increasing attention. In the research field of nanomedicine, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSN) with a tailored structure, large surface area, high loading capacity, abundant chemical versatility, and acceptable biocompatibility, have shown great potential to integrate the desired functions for diagnosis of bacterial infections. The focus of this review is to present the advances in mesoporous materials in the form of nanoparticles (NPs) or composites that can easily and flexibly accommodate dual or multifunctional capabilities of separation, identification and tracking performed during the diagnosis of infectious diseases together with the inspiring NP designs in diagnosis of bacterial infections.

Structural Characterization of Proteins Adsorbed at Nanoporous Materials

A nanoporous material has been applied for the development of functional nanobiomaterials by utilizing its uniform pore structure and large adsorption capacity. The structure and stability of biomacromolecules, such as peptide, oligonucleotide, and protein, are primary factors to govern the performance of nanobiomaterials, so that their direct characterization methodologies are in progress. In this review, we focus on recent topics in the structural characterization of protein molecules adsorbed at a nanoporous material with uniform meso-sized pores. The thermal stabilities of the adsorbed proteins are also summarized to discuss whether the structure of the adsorbed protein molecules can be stabilized or not.

Immobilization of papain: A review

Papain is a cysteine protease from papaya, with many applications due to its broad specificity. This paper reviews for first time the immobilization of papain on different supports (organic, inorganic or hybrid supports) presenting some of the features of the utilized immobilization strategies (e.g., epoxide, glutaraldehyde, genipin, glyoxyl for covalent immobilization). Special focus is placed on the preparation of magnetic biocatalysts, which will permit the simple recovery of the biocatalyst even if the medium is a suspension. Problems specific to the immobilization of proteases (e.g., steric problems when hydrolyzing large proteins) are also defined. The benefits of a proper immobilization (enzyme stabilization, widening of the operation window) are discussed, together with some artifacts that may suggest an enzyme stabilization that may be unrelated to enzyme rigidification.

Recent progress in magnetic nanoparticles and mesoporous materials for enzyme immobilization: an update

Enzymes immobilized onto substrates with excellent selectivity and activity show a high stability and can withstand extreme experimental conditions, and their performance has been shown to be retained after repeated uses. Applications of immobilized enzymes in various fields benefit from their unique characteristics. Common methods, including adsorption, encapsulation, covalent attachment and crosslinking, and other emerging approaches (e.g., MOFs) of enzyme immobilization have been developed mostly in recent years. In accordance with these immobilization methods, the present review elaborates the application of magnetic separable nanoparticles and functionalized SBA-15 and MCM-41 mesoporous materials used in the immobilization of enzymes.

Loading and Release of Charged and Neutral Fluorescent Dyes into and from Mesoporous Materials: A Key Role for Sensing Applications

The aim of this study is to determine the efficiency of loading and release of several zwitterionic, neutral, anionic and cationic dyes into/from mesoporous nanoparticles to find the optimum loading and release conditions for their application in detection protocols. The loading is carried out for MCM-41 type silica supports suspended in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) buffer (pH 7.4) or in acetonitrile, involving the dyes (rhodamine B chloride, rhodamine 101 chloride, rhodamine 101 perchlorate, rhodamine 101 inner salt, meso-(4-hydroxyphenyl)-boron–dipyrromethene (BODIPY), sulforhodamine B sodium salt and fluorescein 27). As a general trend, rhodamine-based dyes are loaded with higher efficiency, when compared with BODIPY and fluorescein dyes. Between the rhodamine-based dyes, their charge and the solvent in which the loading process is carried out play important roles for the amount of cargo that can be loaded into the materials. The delivery experiments carried out in PBS buffer at pH 7.4 reveal for all the materials that anionic dyes are more efficiently released compared to their neutral or cationic counterparts. The overall best performance is achieved with the negatively charged sulforhodamine B dye in acetonitrile. This material also shows a high delivery degree in PBS buffer.

Confined interfacial micelle aggregating assembly of ordered macro-mesoporous tungsten oxides for H2S sensing

Porous tungsten oxides (WO3) have been implemented in various application fields including catalysis, energy storage and conversion, and gas sensing. However, the construction of hierarchically ordered porous WO3 nanostructures with highly crystalline frameworks remains a great challenge. Herein, a confined interfacial micelle aggregating assembly approach has been developed for the synthesis of ordered macro-mesoporous WO3 (OMMW) nanostructures using three-dimensional SiO2 photonic crystals (PCs) as nanoreactors for the confined assembly of tungsten precursor and poly(ethylene oxide)-block-polystyrene (PEO-b-PS) template. After the heat treatment and etching processes, the obtained OMMW could achieve hierarchically ordered porous nanostructures with close-packed spherical mesopores (∼34.1 nm), interconnected macro-cavities (∼420 nm), high accessible surface areas (∼78 m2 g-1), and highly crystalline frameworks owing to the protection of dual templates. When OMMW nanostructures were assembled into gas sensors for the detection of H2S, the resulting sensors exhibited excellent comprehensive sensing performance, including a rapid response-recovery kinetics, in addition to high selectivity and long-term stability, which are significantly better than the previously reported WO3-based sensors. This study paves a promising way toward the development of hierarchically ordered porous semiconductors with large and interconnected porous channels for sensing applications.

Functional Channel of SWCNTs/Cu2O/ZnO NRs/Graphene Hybrid Electrodes for Highly Sensitive Nonenzymatic Glucose Sensors

The hybrid electrode of single-wall carbon nanotubes (SWCNTs)/Cu₂O/ZnO nanorods (NRs)/graphene used on the current-response nonenzymatic glucose sensor was investigated herein, regarding the mechanism of the formation of functional channel. The synthesis of the hybrid electrode involved four steps. First, the graphene was grown by chemical vapor deposition (CVD) and then wet-transferred onto indium transparent oxide (ITO) glass. Second, a zinc oxide (ZnO) seed layer was sputtered onto the graphene/ITO glass, and ZnO NRs were gradually grown by the hydrothermal method. Third, the ZnO NRs were clad with cuprous oxide (Cu₂O) by the electrochemical method. Fourth, the SWCNTs were dropped onto the Cu₂O surface, with a Nafion surfactant. X-ray diffraction spectra, scanning electron microscopy spectra, Raman spectra, cyclic voltammograms, and amperometric response diagrams were used to verify the performance of the device. Results showed that sensitivity increased significantly from 11.2 to 289.8 μA mM^-1 cm^-2, linear range increased significantly from 0.6 to 11.1 mM, and the coefficient of determination (R²) increased from 0.9766 to 0.9923, all by the addition of the SWCNTs/Cu₂O functional channel mechanism and without graphene. When the graphene was added to the functional channel electrode, sensitivity increased again from 289.8 to 466.1 μA mM^-1 cm^-2 at low concentrations.

Electrochemical Sensor Based on Prussian Blue Electrochemically Deposited at ZrO2 Doped Carbon Nanotubes Glassy Carbon Modified Electrode

In this work, a new hydrogen peroxide (H₂O₂) electrochemical sensor was fabricated. Prussian blue (PB) was electrodeposited on a glassy carbon (GC) electrode modified with zirconia doped functionalized carbon nanotubes (ZrO₂-fCNTs), (PB/ZrO₂-fCNTs/GC). The morphology and structure of the nanostructured system were characterized by scanning and transmission electron microscopy (TEM), atomic force microscopy (AFM), specific surface area, X-ray diffraction (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), Raman and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. The electrochemical properties were studied by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and chronoamperometry (CA). Zirconia nanocrystallites (6.6 ± 1.8 nm) with cubic crystal structure were directly synthesized on the fCNTs walls, obtaining a well dispersed distribution with a high surface area. The experimental results indicate that the ZrO₂-fCNTs nanostructured system exhibits good electrochemical properties and could be tunable by enhancing the modification conditions and method of synthesis. The fabricated sensor could be used to efficiently detect H₂O₂, presenting a good linear relationship between the H₂O₂ concentration and the peak current, with quantification limit (LQ) of the 10.91 μmol·L^-1 and detection limit (LD) of 3.5913 μmol·L^-1.