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Kamyab P, Kouchaki H, Motamed M, Boroujeni ST, Akbari H, Tabrizi R. Sleep disturbance and gastrointestinal cancer risk: a literature review. J Investig Med 2023; 71:163-172. [PMID: 36645049 DOI: 10.1177/10815589221140595] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Sleep, accounting for roughly one-third of a person's life, plays an important role in human health. Despite the close association between sleep patterns and medical diseases proven by several studies, it has been neglected in recent years. Presently, all societies are facing the most challenging health-threatening disease, cancer. Among all cancer types, gastrointestinal (GI) cancers, especially colorectal type, seem to be one of the most relevant to an individual's lifestyle; thus, they can be prevented by modifying behaviors most of the time. Previous studies have shown that disruption of the 24-h sleep-wake cycle increases the chance of colorectal cancer, which can be due to exposure to artificial light at night and some complex genetic and hormone-mediated mechanisms. There has also been some evidence showing the possible associations between other aspects of sleep such as sleep duration or some sleep disorders and GI cancer risk. This review brings some information together and presents a detailed discussion of the possible role of sleep patterns in GI malignancy initiation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parnia Kamyab
- Universal Scientific Education and Research Network, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Hosein Kouchaki
- Universal Scientific Education and Research Network, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
| | - Mahsa Motamed
- Department of Psychiatry, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Hamed Akbari
- Department of Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Kerman University of Medical Sciences, Kerman, Iran
| | - Reza Tabrizi
- Noncommunicable Diseases Research Center, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran.,Clinical Research Development Unit, Valiasr Hospital, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran.,USERN Office, Fasa University of Medical Sciences, Fasa, Iran
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2
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Bumgarner JR, McCray EW, Nelson RJ. The disruptive relationship among circadian rhythms, pain, and opioids. Front Neurosci 2023; 17:1109480. [PMID: 36875657 PMCID: PMC9975345 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2023.1109480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2022] [Accepted: 01/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Pain behavior and the systems that mediate opioid analgesia and opioid reward processing display circadian rhythms. Moreover, the pain system and opioid processing systems, including the mesolimbic reward circuitry, reciprocally interact with the circadian system. Recent work has demonstrated the disruptive relationship among these three systems. Disruption of circadian rhythms can exacerbate pain behavior and modulate opioid processing, and pain and opioids can influence circadian rhythms. This review highlights evidence demonstrating the relationship among the circadian, pain, and opioid systems. Evidence of how disruption of one of these systems can lead to reciprocal disruptions of the other is then reviewed. Finally, we discuss the interconnected nature of these systems to emphasize the importance of their interactions in therapeutic contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob R Bumgarner
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Evan W McCray
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
| | - Randy J Nelson
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV, United States
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3
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Knezevic NN, Nader A, Pirvulescu I, Pynadath A, Rahavard BB, Candido KD. Circadian pain patterns in human pain conditions - A systematic review. Pain Pract 2023; 23:94-109. [PMID: 35869813 PMCID: PMC10086940 DOI: 10.1111/papr.13149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Chronobiology is the science of how physiological processes in the body follow a pattern of time. Pain has been shown to follow a circadian rhythm, with different types of pain having variable expression along this rhythm. OBJECTIVE This article reviews the nature of diurnal variations in pain along with a discussion of the mechanisms of circadian rhythm of pain. EVIDENCE REVIEW We conducted a literature search on the PubMed and Google Scholar electronic databases, through April 2022. Publications were screened for English language, full-text availability, and human subjects. Randomized controlled trials and observational trials were included. Data were extracted from studies on patients with acute or chronic pain phenotypes, which provide pain severity data and corresponding diurnal time points. FINDINGS The literature search led to the inclusion of 39 studies. A circadian pattern of pain was found to be present in nociceptive, neuropathic, central, and mixed pain states. Postoperative pain, fibromyalgia, trigeminal neuralgia, and migraines were associated with higher pain scores in the morning. Temporomandibular joint pain, neuropathic pain, labor pain, biliary colic, and cluster headaches increased throughout the day to reach a peak in the evening or night. Arthritis and cancer pain were not associated with any circadian rhythmicity. Furthermore, the circadian rhythm of pain was not found to be altered in patients on analgesics. CONCLUSION The results of this review suggest that an understanding of diurnal variation may help improve therapeutic strategies in pain management, for instance through analgesic titration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nebojsa Nick Knezevic
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Anthony Nader
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Iulia Pirvulescu
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Aby Pynadath
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Behnoosh B Rahavard
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Kenneth D Candido
- Department of Anesthesiology, Advocate Illinois Masonic Medical Center, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Department of Anesthesiology, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Department of Surgery, University of Illinois, Chicago, Illinois, USA
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Street ME, Ponzi D, Renati R, Petraroli M, D’Alvano T, Lattanzi C, Ferrari V, Rollo D, Stagi S. Precocious puberty under stressful conditions: new understanding and insights from the lessons learnt from international adoptions and the COVID-19 pandemic. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2023; 14:1149417. [PMID: 37201098 PMCID: PMC10187034 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2023.1149417] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/21/2023] [Accepted: 04/06/2023] [Indexed: 05/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Neuro-biological variations in the timing of sexual maturation within a species are part of an evolved strategy that depend on internal and external environmental conditions. An increased incidence of central precocious puberty (CPP) has been described in both adopted and "covid-19 pandemic" children. Until recently, it was hypothesised that the triggers for CPP in internationally adopted children were likely to be better nutrition, greater environmental stability, and improved psychological wellbeing. However, following data collected during and after the coronavirus (COVID-19) global pandemic, other possibilities must be considered. In a society with high levels of child wellbeing, the threat to life presented by an unknown and potentially serious disease and the stressful environment created by lockdowns and other public health measures could trigger earlier pubertal maturation as an evolutionary response to favour early reproduction. The main driver for increased rates of precocious and rapidly progressive puberty during the pandemic could have been the environment of "fear and stress" in schools and households. In many children, CPP may have been triggered by the psychological effects of living without normal social contact, using PPE, being near adults concerned about financial and other issues and the fear of getting ill. The features and time of progression of CPP in children during the pandemic are similar to those observed in adopted children. This review considers the mechanisms regulating puberty with a focus on neurobiological and evolutionary mechanisms, and analyses precocious puberty both during the pandemic and in internationally adopted children searching for common yet unconsidered factors in an attempt to identify the factors which may have acted as triggers. In particular, we focus on stress as a potential factor in the early activation of the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis and its correlation with rapid sexual maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Elisabeth Street
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Unit of Paediatrics, P. Barilla Children’s Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Parma, Parma, Italy
- *Correspondence: Maria Elisabeth Street,
| | - Davide Ponzi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Roberta Renati
- Department of Pedagogy, Psychology and Philosophy, University of Cagliari, Cagliari, Italy
| | - Maddalena Petraroli
- Unit of Paediatrics, P. Barilla Children’s Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Tiziana D’Alvano
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Unit of Paediatrics, P. Barilla Children’s Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Claudia Lattanzi
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- Unit of Paediatrics, P. Barilla Children’s Hospital, Azienda Ospedaliero-Universitaria of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Vittorio Ferrari
- Health Sciences Department, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
| | - Dolores Rollo
- Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Stefano Stagi
- Health Sciences Department, University of Florence, Florence, Italy
- Azienda Ospedaliero Univesitaria Meyer IRCCS, Florence, Italy
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Granado MDJ, Pinato L, Santiago J, Barbalho SM, Parmezzan JEL, Suzuki LM, Cabrini ML, Spressão DRMS, Carneiro de Camargo AL, Guissoni Campos LM. Melatonin receptors and Per1 expression in the inferior olivary nucleus of the Sapajus apella monkey. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1072772. [PMID: 36605547 PMCID: PMC9809291 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1072772] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Melatonin is a transducer of photic environmental information and participates in the synchronization of various physiological and behavioral phenomena. Melatonin can act directly in several areas of the central nervous system through its membrane receptors coupled to G protein, called MT1 and MT2 receptors. In some structures, such as the retina, hypothalamus and pars tuberalis, the expression of both melatonin receptors shows circadian variations. Melatonin can act in the synchronization of the clock proteins rhythm in these areas. Using the immunohistochemistry technique, we detected the immunoexpression of the melatonin receptors and clock genes clock protein Per1 in the inferior olivary nucleus (ION) of the Sapajus apella monkey at specific times of the light-dark phase. The mapping performed by immunohistochemistry showed expressive immunoreactivity (IR) Per1 with predominance during daytime. Both melatonin receptors were expressed in the ION without a day/night difference. The presence of both melatonin receptors and the Per1 protein in the inferior olivary nucleus can indicate a functional role not only in physiological, as in sleep, anxiety, and circadian rhythm, but also a chronobiotic role in motor control mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcos Donizete Junior Granado
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Luciana Pinato
- Department of Speech, Language and Hearing Sciences, São Paulo State University (UNESP), Marília, Brazil
| | - Jeferson Santiago
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Sandra Maria Barbalho
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Jessica Ellen Lima Parmezzan
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Lenita Mayumi Suzuki
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Mayara Longui Cabrini
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | | | - Ana Letícia Carneiro de Camargo
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil
| | - Leila Maria Guissoni Campos
- Postgraduate Program in Structural and Functional Interactions in Rehabilitation, Medical School, University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Marília, Brazil,*Correspondence: Leila Maria Guissoni Campos,
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Fu D, Li T, Zhang Y, Wang H, Wu X, Chen Y, Cao B, Wei H. Analysis of the Incidence and Risk Factors of Precocious Puberty in Girls during the COVID-19 Pandemic. Int J Endocrinol 2022; 2022:9229153. [PMID: 36213197 PMCID: PMC9534639 DOI: 10.1155/2022/9229153] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2021] [Revised: 08/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Home quarantine due to the global coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has had a significant impact on children. Lifestyle changes have led to an increase in precocious puberty (PP) among girls, and the underlying risk factors for this remain unclear. Thus, we aimed to assess the influence of environmental, genetic, nutritional, and other lifestyle factors on the risk of PP in girls. We evaluated the incidence of new-onset PP in girls during home quarantine for COVID-19 and analyzed the potential risk factors. This was a retrospective questionnaire and medical record-based study involving 22 representative medical units from 13 cities in Henan Province, China. Girls with new-onset PP (central precocious puberty, 58; premature thelarche, 58; age, 5-9 years) between February 2020 and May 2020 were included, along with 124 healthy, age-matched controls. The number of new-onset PP cases reported during the study period was compared with that reported between February and May in 2018 and 2019. Patients' families completed a questionnaire to assess potential risk factors. There was a 5.01- and 3.14-fold increase in the number of new-onset PP cases from 2018 to 2020 and from 2019 to 2020, respectively; the differences were statistically significant (p < 0.01). High-risk factors for PP included longer time spent using electronic devices, decreased exercise time, higher body mass index, vitamin D deficiency, young age (<12 years) of mother during menarche, consumption of fried food and processed meat, residence in rural areas, and consumption of off-season fruits. Thus, we found that lifestyle changes caused due to the COVID-19 pandemic led to a significant increase in PP in girls. Management of the risk factors identified in this study may help in PP prevention.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongxia Fu
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Tao Li
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Yingxian Zhang
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Huizhen Wang
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Xue Wu
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Yongxing Chen
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
| | - Bingyan Cao
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Beijing Children's Hospital Affiliated to Capital Medical University, Beijing 100000, China
| | - Haiyan Wei
- Department of Endocrinology and Inborn Error of Metabolism, Children's Hospital Affiliated to Zhengzhou University, Henan Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou Children's Hospital, Zhengzhou, Henan 450000, China
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Hu S, Gilron I, Singh M, Bhatia A. A scoping review of the diurnal variation in the intensity of neuropathic pain. PAIN MEDICINE 2021; 23:991-1005. [PMID: 34850188 DOI: 10.1093/pm/pnab336] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2021] [Revised: 11/07/2021] [Accepted: 11/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Recent studies suggest that neuropathic pain exhibit a daily diurnal pattern with peak levels usually in the late afternoon to evening and trough in the morning hours, although literature on this topic has been sparse. This scoping review examines current evidence on the chronobiology of neuropathic pain in both animal models and in humans with neuropathic pain. METHOD Literature search was conducted on major medical databases for relevant articles on chronobiology of neuropathic pain in both animal models and in humans with neuropathic pain. Data extracted include details of specific animal models or specific neuropathic pain conditions in humans, methods and timing of assessing pain severity, and specific findings of diurnal variation in pain intensity or its surrogate markers. RESULTS Thirteen animal and eight human studies published between 1976 to 2020 were included in the analysis. Seven out of 13 animal studies reported specific diurnal variation in pain intensity, with five of the seven studies reporting a trend towards increased sensitivity to mechanical allodynia or thermal hyperalgesia in the late light to dark phase. All eight studies on human subjects reported a diurnal variation in the intensity of neuropathic pain where there was an increase in pain intensity through the day with peaks in late evening and early night hours. CONCLUSIONS Studies included in this review demonstrated a diurnal variation in the pattern of neuropathic pain that is distinct from the pattern for nociceptive pain. These findings have implications for potential therapeutic strategies for neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sally Hu
- Anesthesia Resident, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Ian Gilron
- Department of Anesthesiology & Perioperative Medicine, Centre for Neuroscience Studies, Department of Biomedical & Molecular Sciences, Queen's University, Kingston, Ontario, Canada
| | - Mandeep Singh
- Anesthesia Resident, Department of Anesthesiology and Pain Medicine, University of Toronto, University Health Network-Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Anuj Bhatia
- Department of Anesthesia and Pain Medicine and Institute of Health Policy, Management and Evaluation, University of Toronto University Health Network-Toronto Western Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
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Bumgarner JR, Walker WH, Nelson RJ. Circadian rhythms and pain. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 129:296-306. [PMID: 34375675 PMCID: PMC8429267 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.08.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2020] [Revised: 06/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/04/2021] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The goal of this review is to provide a perspective on the nature and importance of the relationship between the circadian and pain systems. We provide: 1) An overview of the circadian and pain systems, 2) a review of direct and correlative evidence that demonstrates diurnal and circadian rhythms within the pain system; 3) a perspective highlighting the need to consider the role of a proposed feedback loop of circadian rhythm disruption and maladaptive pain; 4) a perspective on the nature of the relationship between circadian rhythms and pain. In summary, we propose that there is no single locus responsible for producing the circadian rhythms of the pain system. Instead, circadian rhythms of pain are a complex result of the distributed rhythms present throughout the pain system, especially those of the descending pain modulatory system, and the rhythms of the systems with which it interacts, including the opioid, endocrine, and immune systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob R Bumgarner
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA.
| | - William H Walker
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
| | - Randy J Nelson
- Department of Neuroscience, Rockefeller Neuroscience Institute, West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV 26506, USA
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Adjuvant use of melatonin for relieving symptoms of painful diabetic neuropathy: results of a randomized, double-blinded, controlled trial. Eur J Clin Pharmacol 2021; 77:1649-1663. [PMID: 34121140 DOI: 10.1007/s00228-021-03170-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2021] [Accepted: 06/02/2021] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE The trial aimed to investigate the effectiveness of exogenous melatonin as an adjuvant to pregabalin for relief of pain in patients suffering from painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN). PATIENTS AND METHODS This randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial was carried out between October 2019 and December 2020 in an outpatient specialty clinic in Iran. One-hundred-three type 2 diabetic patients suffering from PDN were randomized into either the melatonin group (n = 52) or the placebo group (n = 51). Besides pregabalin at a dose of 150 mg per day, patients started with melatonin or an identical placebo, at a dose of 3 mg/day at bedtime for 1 week, which was augmented to 6 mg/day for further 7 weeks. The primary outcomes were changes in mean NRS (numerical rating scale) pain score from baseline to endpoint and responder rate (patients with a reduction of 50% and higher in average pain score compared with baseline). Secondary endpoints were changes in mean NRS pain-related sleep-interference score, overall improvement evaluated by Patient and Clinical Global Impressions of Change (PGIC, CGIC), and impact of the intervention on patient's Health-related quality of life (QOL). All analyses were conducted on an Intention-to-Treat (ITT) analysis data set. RESULTS At the study endpoint, treatment with melatonin resulted in a considerably higher reduction in the mean NRS pain score in comparison with placebo (4.2 ± 1.83 vs. 2.9 ± 1.56; P-value < 0.001). In terms of treatment responders, a greater proportion of melatonin-treated patients satisfied the responder criterion than placebo-treated patients (63.5% vs. 43.1%). Melatonin also reduced pain-related sleep interference scores more than did placebo (3.38 ± 1.49 vs. 2.25 ± 1.26; P-value < 0.001). Further, at the endpoint, more improvement was also seen in terms of PGIC, CGIC, and Health-related QOL in patients treated with melatonin than placebo. Melatonin was also well tolerated. CONCLUSION The present results showed that melatonin as an adjunct therapy to pregabalin might be helpful for use in patients with PDN. However, confirmation of these results requires further studies.
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Comparison of Pain Severity, Sleep Quality and Psychological Status in Patients with Migraine with and without Cutaneous Allodynia. ANADOLU KLINIĞI TIP BILIMLERI DERGISI 2020. [DOI: 10.21673/anadoluklin.644740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
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12
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Melatonin MT 1 and MT 2 Receptors Exhibit Distinct Effects in the Modulation of Body Temperature across the Light/Dark Cycle. Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20102452. [PMID: 31108968 PMCID: PMC6566544 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20102452] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2019] [Revised: 05/06/2019] [Accepted: 05/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Melatonin (MLT) is a neurohormone that regulates many physiological functions including sleep, pain, thermoregulation, and circadian rhythms. MLT acts mainly through two G-protein-coupled receptors named MT1 and MT2, but also through an MLT type-3 receptor (MT3). However, the role of MLT receptor subtypes in thermoregulation is still unknown. We have thus investigated the effects of selective and non-selective MLT receptor agonists/antagonists on body temperature (Tb) in rats across the 12/12-h light-dark cycle. Rectal temperature was measured every 15 min from 4:00 a.m. to 9:30 a.m. and from 4:00 p.m. to 9:30 p.m., following subcutaneous injection of each compound at either 5:00 a.m. or 5:00 p.m. MLT (40 mg/kg) had no effect when injected at 5 a.m., whereas it decreased Tb during the light phase only when injected at 5:00 p.m. This effect was blocked by the selective MT2 receptor antagonist 4P-PDOT and the non-selective MT1/MT2 receptor antagonist, luzindole, but not by the α1/MT3 receptors antagonist prazosin. However, unlike MLT, neither the selective MT1 receptor partial agonist UCM871 (14 mg/kg) nor the selective MT2 partial agonist UCM924 (40 mg/kg) altered Tb during the light phase. In contrast, UCM871 injected at 5:00 p.m. increased Tb at the beginning of the dark phase, whereas UCM924 injected at 5:00 a.m. decreased Tb at the end of the dark phase. These effects were blocked by luzindole and 4P-PDOT, respectively. The MT3 receptor agonist GR135531 (10 mg/kg) did not affect Tb. These data suggest that the simultaneous activation of both MT1 and MT2 receptors is necessary to regulate Tb during the light phase, whereas in a complex but yet unknown manner, they regulate Tb differently during the dark phase. Overall, MT1 and MT2 receptors display complementary but also distinct roles in modulating circadian fluctuations of Tb.
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Burish MJ, Chen Z, Yoo SH. Emerging relevance of circadian rhythms in headaches and neuropathic pain. Acta Physiol (Oxf) 2019; 225:e13161. [PMID: 29969187 DOI: 10.1111/apha.13161] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2017] [Accepted: 06/29/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Circadian rhythms of physiology are the keys to health and fitness, as dysregulation, by genetic mutations or environmental factors, increases disease risk and aggravates progression. Molecular and physiological studies have shed important light on an intrinsic clock that drives circadian rhythms and serves essential roles in metabolic homoeostasis, organ physiology and brain functions. One exciting new area in circadian research is pain, including headache and neuropathic pain for which new mechanistic insights have recently emerged. For example, cluster headache is an intermittent pain disorder with an exceedingly precise circadian timing, and preliminary evidence is emerging linking several circadian components (eg, Clock and Nr1d1) with the disease. In this review, we first discuss the broad metabolic and physiological relevance of the circadian timing system. We then provide a detailed review of the circadian relevance in pain disease and physiology, including cluster headache, migraine, hypnic headache and neuropathic pain. Finally, we describe potential therapeutic implications, including existing pain medicines and novel clock-modulating compounds. The physiological basis for the circadian rhythms in pain is an exciting new area of research with profound basic and translational impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mark J. Burish
- Department of Neurosurgery; University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston; Houston Texas
| | - Zheng Chen
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston; Houston Texas
| | - Seung-Hee Yoo
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology; University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston; Houston Texas
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Kuthati Y, Lin SH, Chen IJ, Wong CS. Melatonin and their analogs as a potential use in the management of Neuropathic pain. J Formos Med Assoc 2018; 118:1177-1186. [PMID: 30316678 DOI: 10.1016/j.jfma.2018.09.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2018] [Revised: 08/02/2018] [Accepted: 09/19/2018] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Melatonin (N-acetyl-5-methoxytryptamine), secreted by the pineal gland is known to perform multiple functions including, antioxidant, anti-hypertensive, anti-cancerous, immunomodulatory, sedative and tranquilizing functions. Melatonin is also known to be involved in the regulation of body mass index, control the gastrointestinal system and play an important role in cardioprotection, thermoregulation, and reproduction. Recently, several studies have reported the efficacy of Melatonin in treating various pain syndromes. The current paper reviews the studies on Melatonin and its analogs, particularly in Neuropathic pain. Here, we first briefly summarized research in preclinical studies showing the possible mechanisms through which Melatonin and its analogs induce analgesia in Neuropathic pain. Second, we reviewed research indicating the role of Melatonin in attenuating analgesic tolerance. Finally, we discussed the recent studies that reported novel Melatonin agonists, which were proven to be effective in treating Neuropathic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaswanth Kuthati
- Department of Anesthesiology, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Sheng-Hsiung Lin
- Planning and Management Office, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taiwan
| | - Ing-Jung Chen
- Department of Anesthesiology, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan
| | - Chih-Shung Wong
- Department of Anesthesiology, Cathay General Hospital, Taipei, Taiwan; Planning and Management Office, Tri-Service General Hospital, National Defense Medical Center, Taiwan; Institute of Medical Sciences, National Defense Medical Center, Taiwan; Department of Anesthesiology, Tri-Service General Hospital, Taiwan.
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Bilateral tactile hypersensitivity and neuroimmune responses after spared nerve injury in mice lacking vasoactive intestinal peptide. Exp Neurol 2017; 293:62-73. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2017.03.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2016] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
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Pinato L, Ramos D, Hataka A, Rossignoli PS, Granado MD, Mazzetto MC, Campos LMG. Day/night expression of MT 1 and MT 2 receptors in hypothalamic nuclei of the primate Sapajus apella. J Chem Neuroanat 2017; 81:10-17. [PMID: 28159659 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchemneu.2017.01.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2016] [Revised: 01/29/2017] [Accepted: 01/30/2017] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin is involved in the temporal organization of several physiological and behavioral events, controlled by hypothalamic nuclei, like sleep, feeding, reproduction and metabolic modulation and acts through two types of high-affinity G protein-coupled membrane receptors: MT1 and MT2. This study aimed to investigate the expression of MT1 and MT2 receptors proteins in four hypothalamic nuclei, i.e., SCN, supraoptic (SON), paraventricular (PVN) and anteroventral periventricular nuclei (AVPV), of the diurnal primate Sapajus apella using immunohistochemistry. Since these areas are involved in the expression of biological rhythms, they are candidates to have variations in their neurochemistry, so the MT1 and MT2 expression has been analyzed at a point in light and another in the dark phase. Both receptors were found to have day/night differences in the four hypothalamic nuclei with an apparent inverse expression in the SCN compared with the other areas. These differences could be related to the idea that the individual should be prepared to respond by different ways to melatonin signal within the several processes and can contribute to the efficacy of melatonin ligands or melatonin in therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Dayane Ramos
- University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Medical School, Marilia, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | | | | | - Leila M G Campos
- São Paulo State University (UNESP), Marilia, SP, Brazil; University of Marilia (UNIMAR), Medical School, Marilia, SP, Brazil.
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Naegel S, Huhn JI, Gaul C, Diener HC, Obermann M, Holle D. No Pattern Alteration in Single Nocturnal Melatonin Secretion in Patients With Hypnic Headache: A Case-Control Study. Headache 2016; 57:648-653. [DOI: 10.1111/head.12983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2016] [Revised: 08/26/2016] [Accepted: 09/25/2016] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Steffen Naegel
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
| | - Jana-Isabel Huhn
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
| | - Charly Gaul
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
- Migraine and Headache Clinic; Königstein Germany
| | - Hans-Christoph Diener
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
| | - Mark Obermann
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
- Asklepios Hospitals Schildautal; Center for Neurology; Seesen Germany
| | - Dagny Holle
- Department of Neurology and Headache Center; University of Duisburg-Essen; Essen Germany
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Kaneta M, Ochiai W, Nagae M, Suto W, Hanagata M, Suzuki H, Kitaoka S, Hatogai J, Ikarashi N, Sugiyama K. Mechanism for Increased Expression of UGT2B in the Liver of Mice with Neuropathic Pain. Biol Pharm Bull 2016; 39:1809-1814. [DOI: 10.1248/bpb.b16-00341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Affiliation(s)
| | - Wataru Ochiai
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
| | - Marina Nagae
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
| | - Wataru Suto
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
| | - Mika Hanagata
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
| | - Haruka Suzuki
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
| | | | - Jo Hatogai
- Department of Clinical Pharmacokinetics, Hoshi University
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Selective melatonin MT2 receptor ligands relieve neuropathic pain through modulation of brainstem descending antinociceptive pathways. Pain 2015; 156:305-317. [PMID: 25599452 DOI: 10.1097/01.j.pain.0000460311.71572.5f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 61] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Neuropathic pain is an important public health problem for which only a few treatments are available. Preclinical studies show that melatonin (MLT), a neurohormone acting on MT1 and MT2 receptors, has analgesic properties, likely through MT2 receptors. Here, we determined the effects of the novel selective MLT MT2 receptor partial agonist N-{2-([3-bromophenyl]-4-fluorophenylamino)ethyl}acetamide (UCM924) in 2 neuropathic pain models in rats and examined its supraspinal mechanism of action. In rat L5-L6 spinal nerve ligation and spared nerve injury models, UCM924 (20-40 mg/kg, subcutaneously) produced a prolonged antinociceptive effect that is : (1) dose-dependent and blocked by the selective MT2 receptor antagonist 4-phenyl-2-propionamidotetralin, (2) superior to a high dose of MLT (150 mg/kg) and comparable with gabapentin (100 mg/kg), but (3) without noticeable motor coordination impairments in the rotarod test. Using double staining immunohistochemistry, we found that MT2 receptors are expressed by glutamatergic neurons in the rostral ventrolateral periaqueductal gray. Using in vivo electrophysiology combined with tail flick, we observed that microinjection of UCM924 into the ventrolateral periaqueductal gray decreased tail flick responses, depressed the firing activity of ON cells, and activated the firing of OFF cells; all effects were MT2 receptor-dependent. Altogether, these data demonstrate that selective MT2 receptor partial agonists have analgesic properties through modulation of brainstem descending antinociceptive pathways, and MT2 receptors may represent a novel target in the treatment of neuropathic pain.
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Kim MJ, Chung JW, Kho HS, Park JW. The Circadian Rhythm Variation of Pain in the Orofacial Region. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.14476/jomp.2015.40.3.89] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/06/2022]
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Cebrián-Pérez JA, Casao A, González-Arto M, dos Santos Hamilton TR, Pérez-Pé R, Muiño-Blanco T. Melatonin in sperm biology: breaking paradigms. Reprod Domest Anim 2015; 49 Suppl 4:11-21. [PMID: 25277428 DOI: 10.1111/rda.12378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 06/19/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Melatonin is a ubiquitous molecule, present in a wide range of organisms, and involved in multiple functions. Melatonin relays the information about the photoperiod to the tissues that express melatonin-binding sites in both central and peripheral nervous systems. This hormone has a complex mechanism of action. It can cross the cell plasma membrane and exert its actions in all cells of the body. Certain melatonin actions are mediated by receptors that belong to the superfamily of G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), the MT1 and MT2 membrane. Melatonin can also bind to calmodulin as well as to nuclear receptors of the retinoic acid receptor family, RORα1, RORα2 and RZRβ. The purpose of this review is to report on recent developments in the physiological role of melatonin and its receptors. Specific issues concerning the biological function of melatonin in mammalian seasonal reproduction and spermatozoa are considered. The significance of the continuous presence of melatonin in seminal plasma with a fairly constant concentration is also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J A Cebrián-Pérez
- Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular y Celular, Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Ciencias Ambientales de Aragón (IUCA), Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Zaragoza, Zaragoza, Spain
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Beesley S, Lee J, Olcese J. Circadian clock regulation of melatonin MTNR1B receptor expression in human myometrial smooth muscle cells. Mol Hum Reprod 2015; 21:662-71. [DOI: 10.1093/molehr/gav023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2015] [Accepted: 04/21/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
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de Tommaso M, Delussi M, Vecchio E, Sciruicchio V, Invitto S, Livrea P. Sleep features and central sensitization symptoms in primary headache patients. J Headache Pain 2014; 15:64. [PMID: 25260261 PMCID: PMC4189547 DOI: 10.1186/1129-2377-15-64] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2014] [Accepted: 09/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Association between sleep disorders and headache is largely known. The aim of the present study was to evaluate sleep quality and quantity in a large cohort of primary headache patients, in order to correlate these scores with symptoms of central sensitization as allodynia, pericranial tenderness and comorbidity with diffuse muscle-skeletal pain. METHODS One thousand six hundreds and seventy primary headache out patients were submitted to the Medical Outcomes Study (MOS) within a clinical assessment, consisting of evaluation of frequency of headache, pericranial tenderness, allodynia and coexistence of fibromyalgia syndrome (FM). RESULTS Ten groups of primary headache patients were individuated, including patients with episodic and chronic migraine and tension type headache, mixed forms, cluster headache and other trigeminal autonomic cephalalgias. Duration but not sleep disturbances score was correlated with symptoms of central sensitization as allodynia and pericranial tenderness in primary headache patients. The association among allodynia, pericranial tenderness and short sleep characterized chronic migraine more than any other primary headache form. Patients presenting with FM comorbidity suffered from sleep disturbances in addition to reduction of sleep duration. CONCLUSION Self reported duration of sleep seems a useful index to be correlated with allodynia, pericranial tenderness and chronic headache as a therapeutic target to be assessed in forthcoming studies aiming to prevent central sensitization symptoms development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marina de Tommaso
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Marianna Delussi
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Eleonora Vecchio
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Vittorio Sciruicchio
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
| | - Sara Invitto
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
- DISTEBA Department, Salento University, Lecce, Italy
| | - Paolo Livrea
- Neuroscience and Sensory System Department, Neurophysiopathology of Pain Unit, Basical Medical Sciences, Bari University, Policlinico General Hospital, Giovanni XXIII Building, Via Amendola 207 A, 70124 Bari, Italy
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When time stands still: an integrative review on the role of chronodisruption in posttraumatic stress disorder. Curr Opin Psychiatry 2014; 27:385-92. [PMID: 25023884 DOI: 10.1097/yco.0000000000000079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE OF REVIEW The human circadian system creates and maintains cellular and systemic rhythmicity essential to homeostasis. Loss of circadian rhythmicity fundamentally affects the neuroendocrine, immune and autonomic system, similar to chronic stress and, thus, may play a central role in the development of stress-related disorders. This article focuses on the role of circadian misalignment in the pathophysiology of posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). RECENT FINDINGS Sleep disruption is a core feature of PTSD supporting the important supraordinate pathophysiological role of circadian system in PTSD. Furthermore, direct and indirect human and animal PTSD research suggests circadian system linked neuroendocrine, immune, metabolic and autonomic dysregulation with blunted diurnal rhythms, specific sleep pattern pathologies and cognitive deficits, as well as endocannabinoid and neuropeptide Y system alterations and altered circadian gene expression, linking circadian misalignment to PTSD pathophysiology. SUMMARY PTSD development is associated with chronodisruption findings. Evaluation and treatment of sleep and circadian disruption should be the first steps in PTSD management. State-of-the-art methods of circadian rhythm assessment should be applied to bridge the gap between clinical significance and limited understanding of the relationship between traumatic stress, sleep and circadian system.
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Abstract
The perception of pain in children is easily influenced by environmental factors and psychological comorbidities that are known to play an important role in its origin and response to therapy. Chronic abdominal pain is one of the most commonly treated conditions in modern pediatric gastroenterology and is the hallmark of 'functional' disorders that include irritable bowel syndrome, functional dyspepsia, and functional abdominal pain. The development of pharmacological therapies for these disorders in adults and children has been limited by the lack of understanding of the putative, pathophysiological mechanisms that underlie them. Peripheral and central pain-signaling mechanisms are known to be involved in chronic pain originating from the gastrointestinal tract, but few therapies have been developed to target specific pathways or enhance correction of the underlying pathophysiology. The responses to therapy have been variable, potentially reflecting the heterogeneity of the disorders for which they are used. Only a few small, randomized clinical trials have evaluated the benefit of pain medications for chronic abdominal pain in children and thus, the decision on the most appropriate treatment is often based on adult studies and empirical data. This review discusses the most common, non-narcotic pharmacological treatments for chronic abdominal pain in children and includes a thorough review of the literature to support or refute their use. Because of the dearth of pediatric studies, the focus is on pharmacological and alternative therapies where there is sufficient evidence of benefit in either adults or children with chronic abdominal pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adrian Miranda
- Division of Gastroenterology and Hepatology, Department of Pediatrics, Medical College of Wisconsin, 8701 Watertown Plank Road, Milwaukee, WI, 53226, USA,
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Gherardini L, Ciuti G, Tognarelli S, Cinti C. Searching for the perfect wave: the effect of radiofrequency electromagnetic fields on cells. Int J Mol Sci 2014; 15:5366-87. [PMID: 24681584 PMCID: PMC4013569 DOI: 10.3390/ijms15045366] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2013] [Revised: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 03/20/2014] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
There is a growing concern in the population about the effects that environmental exposure to any source of “uncontrolled” radiation may have on public health. Anxiety arises from the controversial knowledge about the effect of electromagnetic field (EMF) exposure to cells and organisms but most of all concerning the possible causal relation to human diseases. Here we reviewed those in vitro and in vivo and epidemiological works that gave a new insight about the effect of radio frequency (RF) exposure, relating to intracellular molecular pathways that lead to biological and functional outcomes. It appears that a thorough application of standardized protocols is the key to reliable data acquisition and interpretation that could contribute a clearer picture for scientists and lay public. Moreover, specific tuning of experimental and clinical RF exposure might lead to beneficial health effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Gherardini
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Siena, Strada Petriccio e Belriguardo, Siena 53100, Italy.
| | - Gastone Ciuti
- The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pisa 56025, Italy.
| | - Selene Tognarelli
- The BioRobotics Institute, Scuola Superiore Sant'Anna, Viale Rinaldo Piaggio 34, Pisa 56025, Italy.
| | - Caterina Cinti
- Institute of Clinical Physiology, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Siena, Strada Petriccio e Belriguardo, Siena 53100, Italy.
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