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Aldskogius H, Kozlova EN. Dorsal Root Injury-A Model for Exploring Pathophysiology and Therapeutic Strategies in Spinal Cord Injury. Cells 2021; 10:2185. [PMID: 34571835 PMCID: PMC8470715 DOI: 10.3390/cells10092185] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/28/2021] [Revised: 08/19/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Unraveling the cellular and molecular mechanisms of spinal cord injury is fundamental for our possibility to develop successful therapeutic approaches. These approaches need to address the issues of the emergence of a non-permissive environment for axonal growth in the spinal cord, in combination with a failure of injured neurons to mount an effective regeneration program. Experimental in vivo models are of critical importance for exploring the potential clinical relevance of mechanistic findings and therapeutic innovations. However, the highly complex organization of the spinal cord, comprising multiple types of neurons, which form local neural networks, as well as short and long-ranging ascending or descending pathways, complicates detailed dissection of mechanistic processes, as well as identification/verification of therapeutic targets. Inducing different types of dorsal root injury at specific proximo-distal locations provide opportunities to distinguish key components underlying spinal cord regeneration failure. Crushing or cutting the dorsal root allows detailed analysis of the regeneration program of the sensory neurons, as well as of the glial response at the dorsal root-spinal cord interface without direct trauma to the spinal cord. At the same time, a lesion at this interface creates a localized injury of the spinal cord itself, but with an initial neuronal injury affecting only the axons of dorsal root ganglion neurons, and still a glial cell response closely resembling the one seen after direct spinal cord injury. In this review, we provide examples of previous research on dorsal root injury models and how these models can help future exploration of mechanisms and potential therapies for spinal cord injury repair.
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Affiliation(s)
- Håkan Aldskogius
- Laboratory of Regenertive Neurobiology, Biomedical Center, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, 75124 Uppsala, Sweden;
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2
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Gilmour AD, Reshamwala R, Wright AA, Ekberg JAK, St John JA. Optimizing Olfactory Ensheathing Cell Transplantation for Spinal Cord Injury Repair. J Neurotrauma 2021; 37:817-829. [PMID: 32056492 DOI: 10.1089/neu.2019.6939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Cell transplantation constitutes an important avenue for development of new treatments for spinal cord injury (SCI). These therapies are aimed at supporting neural repair and/or replacing lost cells at the injury site. To date, various cell types have been trialed, with most studies focusing on different types of stem cells or glial cells. Here, we review commonly used cell transplantation approaches for spinal cord injury (SCI) repair, with focus on transplantation of olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), the glial cells of the primary olfactory nervous system. OECs are promising candidates for promotion of neural repair given that they support continuous regeneration of the olfactory nerve that occurs throughout life. Further, OECs can be accessed from the nasal mucosa (olfactory neuroepithelium) at the roof of the nasal cavity and can be autologously transplanted. OEC transplantation has been trialed in many animal models of SCI, as well as in human clinical trials. While several studies have been promising, outcomes are variable and the method needs improvement to enhance aspects such as cell survival, integration, and migration. As a case study, we include the approaches used by our team (the Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, Australia) to address the current problems with OEC transplantation and discuss how the therapeutic potential of OEC transplantation can be improved. Our approach includes discovery research to improve our knowledge of OEC biology, identifying natural and synthetic compounds to stimulate the neural repair properties of OECs, and designing three-dimensional cell constructs to create stable and transplantable cell structures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aaron D Gilmour
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - Ronak Reshamwala
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - Alison A Wright
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia
| | - Jenny A K Ekberg
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
| | - James A St John
- Clem Jones Centre for Neurobiology and Stem Cell Research and Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia.,Menzies Health Institute Queensland, Griffith University, Southport, Queensland, Australia.,Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, Australia
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3
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Omelyanchik A, Antipova V, Gritsenko C, Kolesnikova V, Murzin D, Han Y, Turutin AV, Kubasov IV, Kislyuk AM, Ilina TS, Kiselev DA, Voronova MI, Malinkovich MD, Parkhomenko YN, Silibin M, Kozlova EN, Peddis D, Levada K, Makarova L, Amirov A, Rodionova V. Boosting Magnetoelectric Effect in Polymer-Based Nanocomposites. NANOMATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2021; 11:1154. [PMID: 33925105 PMCID: PMC8146360 DOI: 10.3390/nano11051154] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2021] [Revised: 04/25/2021] [Accepted: 04/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Polymer-based magnetoelectric composite materials have attracted a lot of attention due to their high potential in various types of applications as magnetic field sensors, energy harvesting, and biomedical devices. Current researches are focused on the increase in the efficiency of magnetoelectric transformation. In this work, a new strategy of arrangement of clusters of magnetic nanoparticles by an external magnetic field in PVDF and PFVD-TrFE matrixes is proposed to increase the voltage coefficient (αME) of the magnetoelectric effect. Another strategy is the use of 3-component composites through the inclusion of piezoelectric BaTiO3 particles. Developed strategies allow us to increase the αME value from ~5 mV/cm·Oe for the composite of randomly distributed CoFe2O4 nanoparticles in PVDF matrix to ~18.5 mV/cm·Oe for a composite of magnetic particles in PVDF-TrFE matrix with 5%wt of piezoelectric particles. The applicability of such materials as bioactive surface is demonstrated on neural crest stem cell cultures.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Omelyanchik
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry (DCIC), University of Genova, 16146 Genova, Italy;
| | - Valentina Antipova
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
| | - Christina Gritsenko
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
| | - Valeria Kolesnikova
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
| | - Dmitry Murzin
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
| | - Yilin Han
- Biomedical Centre, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden; (Y.H.); (E.N.K.)
| | - Andrei V. Turutin
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
- Department of Physics and I3N, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
| | - Ilya V. Kubasov
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Alexander M. Kislyuk
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Tatiana S. Ilina
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Dmitry A. Kiselev
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Marina I. Voronova
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Mikhail D. Malinkovich
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Yuriy N. Parkhomenko
- Laboratory of Physics of Oxide Ferroelectrics and Department of Materials Science of Semiconductors and Dielectrics, National University of Science and Technology MISiS, 119049 Moscow, Russia; (A.V.T.); (I.V.K.); (A.M.K.); (T.S.I.); (D.A.K.); (M.I.V.); (M.D.M.); (Y.N.P.)
| | - Maxim Silibin
- Institute of Advanced Materials and Technologies, National Research University of Electronic Technology “MIET”, 124498 Moscow, Russia;
- Institute for Bionic Technologies and Engineering, I.M. Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
- Scientific-Manufacturing Complex “Technological Centre” Shokin Square, House 1, Bld. 7, Zelenograd, 124498 Moscow, Russia
| | - Elena N. Kozlova
- Biomedical Centre, Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, 751 24 Uppsala, Sweden; (Y.H.); (E.N.K.)
| | - Davide Peddis
- Department of Chemistry and Industrial Chemistry (DCIC), University of Genova, 16146 Genova, Italy;
- Institute of Structure of Matter–CNR, Monterotondo Stazione, 00016 Rome, Italy
| | - Kateryna Levada
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
| | - Liudmila Makarova
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
- Faculty of Physics, Lomonosov Moscow State University, 1-2 Leninskie Gory, 119234 Moscow, Russia
| | - Abdulkarim Amirov
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
- Amirkhanov Institute of Physics of Dagestan Federal Research Center, Russian Academy of Sciences, 367003 Makhachkala, Russia
| | - Valeria Rodionova
- REC Smart Materials and Biomedical Applications, Immanuel Kant Baltic Federal University, 236041 Kaliningrad, Russia; (A.O.); (V.A.); (C.G.); (V.K.); (D.M.); (K.L.); (L.M.)
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Zhang Y, Xu X, Tong Y, Zhou X, Du J, Choi IY, Yue S, Lee G, Johnson BN, Jia X. Therapeutic effects of peripherally administrated neural crest stem cells on pain and spinal cord changes after sciatic nerve transection. Stem Cell Res Ther 2021; 12:180. [PMID: 33722287 PMCID: PMC7962265 DOI: 10.1186/s13287-021-02200-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/31/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Severe peripheral nerve injury significantly affects patients' quality of life and induces neuropathic pain. Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) exhibit several attractive characteristics for cell-based therapies following peripheral nerve injury. Here, we investigate the therapeutic effect of NCSC therapy and associated changes in the spinal cord in a sciatic nerve transection (SNT) model. METHODS Complex sciatic nerve gap injuries in rats were repaired with cell-free and cell-laden nerve scaffolds for 12 weeks (scaffold and NCSC groups, respectively). Catwalk gait analysis was used to assess the motor function recovery. The mechanical withdrawal threshold and thermal withdrawal latency were used to assess the development of neuropathic pain. Activation of glial cells was examined by immunofluorescence analyses. Spinal levels of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK), NF-κB P65, brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), growth-associated protein (GAP)-43, calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP), and inflammation factors were calculated by western blot analysis. RESULTS Catwalk gait analysis showed that animals in the NCSC group exhibited a higher stand index and Max intensity At (%) relative to those that received the cell-free scaffold (scaffold group) (p < 0.05). The mechanical and thermal allodynia in the medial-plantar surface of the ipsilateral hind paw were significantly relieved in the NCSC group. Sunitinib (SNT)-induced upregulation of glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) (astrocyte) and ionized calcium-binding adaptor molecule 1 (Iba-1) (microglia) in the ipsilateral L4-5 dorsal and ventral horn relative to the contralateral side. Immunofluorescence analyses revealed decreased astrocyte and microglia activation. Activation of ERK and NF-κB signals and expression of transient receptor potential vanilloid 1 (TRPV1) expression were downregulated. CONCLUSION NCSC-laden nerve scaffolds mitigated SNT-induced neuropathic pain and improved motor function recovery after sciatic nerve repair. NCSCs also protected the spinal cord from SNT-induced glial activation and central sensitization.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zhang
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, China.,Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF Building 823, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Xiang Xu
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF Building 823, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Yuxin Tong
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 24061, VA, USA
| | - Xijie Zhou
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF Building 823, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - Jian Du
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF Building 823, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA
| | - In Young Choi
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Shouwei Yue
- Department of Physical Medicine & Rehabilitation, Qilu Hospital, Cheeloo College of Medicine, Shandong University, Jinan, 250012, Shandong, China
| | - Gabsang Lee
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.,Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA
| | - Blake N Johnson
- Department of Industrial and Systems Engineering, School of Neuroscience, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, 24061, VA, USA
| | - Xiaofeng Jia
- Department of Neurosurgery, University of Maryland School of Medicine, 685 West Baltimore Street, MSTF Building 823, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Orthopedics, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Anatomy and Neurobiology, University of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21201, USA. .,Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA. .,Department of Anesthesiology and Critical Care Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, 21205, USA.
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5
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Soto J, Ding X, Wang A, Li S. Neural crest-like stem cells for tissue regeneration. Stem Cells Transl Med 2021; 10:681-693. [PMID: 33533168 PMCID: PMC8046096 DOI: 10.1002/sctm.20-0361] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2020] [Revised: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/24/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) are a transient population of cells that arise during early vertebrate development and harbor stem cell properties, such as self‐renewal and multipotency. These cells form at the interface of non‐neuronal ectoderm and neural tube and undergo extensive migration whereupon they contribute to a diverse array of cell and tissue derivatives, ranging from craniofacial tissues to cells of the peripheral nervous system. Neural crest‐like stem cells (NCLSCs) can be derived from pluripotent stem cells, placental tissues, adult tissues, and somatic cell reprogramming. NCLSCs have a differentiation capability similar to NCSCs, and possess great potential for regenerative medicine applications. In this review, we present recent developments on the various approaches to derive NCLSCs and the therapeutic application of these cells for tissue regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jennifer Soto
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Xili Ding
- Key Laboratory for Biomechanics and Mechanobiology of Ministry of Education, Beijing Advanced Innovation Center for Biomedical Engineering, School of Biological Science and Medical Engineering, Beihang University, Beijing, 100083, People's Republic of China
| | - Aijun Wang
- Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of California Davis, Sacramento, California, USA.,Institute for Pediatric Regenerative Medicine, Shriners Hospitals for Children, Sacramento, California, USA.,Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of California Davis, Davis, California, USA
| | - Song Li
- Department of Bioengineering, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA.,Department of Medicine, University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California, USA
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6
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Ozone influences migration and proliferation of neural stem cells in vitro. Neurosci Lett 2020; 739:135390. [PMID: 32947004 DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2020.135390] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/22/2020] [Revised: 09/09/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Ozone (O3) is a short-lived molecule which can be produced in a controlled reaction when oxygen is exposed to electric discharge. In the last few decades, many publications dealing both with animals and humans reported beneficial effects of ozone administration linked to its immunomodulatory and protective role against cellular damage. This is the first work which brings insight into how ozone influences cells of neural lineage in vitro and hypothesizes the potential molecular and novel electromagnetic mechanisms behind its action. By using neural stem cells, we show that ozone, especially in concentrations of around 11 μg/mL, significantly increases the speed of neural cell migration. With much lower effects, it also increases cell proliferation and cytokine production. Results of this study, at least partly, explain the observed beneficial effects of ozone in diseases of the nervous system tested on animal models and in human clinical trials. Therefore, here described effects of ozone on cellular level represent a firm basis for further investigation of possible applications of ozone in regeneration of the nervous system.
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Ning Z, Jiang L, Wang Z, Huang R, Zhang Z, Zhang Q, Ning P. Non-thermal plasma-enhanced low-temperature catalytic desulfurization of electrolytic aluminum flue gas by CuO-ZrSnO 4: experimental and numerical analysis. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2020; 27:39474-39489. [PMID: 32651792 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-020-09602-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
Catalytic desulfurization is favored for its ability to desulfurize low concentrations of SO2 by generating sulfur without the need for flue gas conditioning or additives. Maintaining reaction efficiency at a low temperature would justify the industrial scale use of this method. To that end, in this study, we modified a previously reported highly efficient CuO-ZrSnO4 catalyst and investigated its desulfurization performance. The non-thermal plasma (NTP) method was used to enhance the low-temperature efficiency of the catalyst. The desulfurization rate was significantly improved without generating excess heat or by-products in the low-output mode of post-plasma-catalysis-type (PPC-type) dielectric barrier discharge (DBD). In addition, we studied the physicochemical properties of the catalyst (pore structure, physical structure, morphology, electronic properties, and chemical state) under plasma enhancement conditions. The catalyst loaded with 20 wt% Cu and aged at 40 °C exhibited optimum desulfurization performance. This study provides a theoretical foundation for the analysis of plasma-enhanced catalytic desulfurization under low-temperature conditions. Graphical abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhiyuan Ning
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Cuihubei Road 2, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Lianshuang Jiang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Cuihubei Road 2, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Zeyue Wang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Cuihubei Road 2, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Rui Huang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Cuihubei Road 2, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Zhenyu Zhang
- School of Chemical Science and Technology, Yunnan University, Cuihubei Road 2, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Qiulin Zhang
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Jingmingnan Road 727, Kunming, 650000, China
| | - Ping Ning
- Faculty of Environmental Science and Engineering, Kunming University of Science and Technology, Jingmingnan Road 727, Kunming, 650000, China.
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Extracellular Vesicles as Innovative Tool for Diagnosis, Regeneration and Protection against Neurological Damage. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21186859. [PMID: 32962107 PMCID: PMC7555813 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21186859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 09/11/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have recently attracted a great deal of interest as they may represent a new biosignaling paradigm. According to the mode of biogenesis, size and composition, two broad categories of EVs have been described, exosomes and microvesicles. EVs have been shown to carry cargoes of signaling proteins, RNA species, DNA and lipids. Once released, their content is selectively taken up by near or distant target cells, influencing their behavior. Exosomes are involved in cell–cell communication in a wide range of embryonic developmental processes and in fetal–maternal communication. In the present review, an outline of the role of EVs in neural development, regeneration and diseases is presented. EVs can act as regulators of normal homeostasis, but they can also promote either neuroinflammation/degeneration or tissue repair in pathological conditions, depending on their content. Since EV molecular cargo constitutes a representation of the origin cell status, EVs can be exploited in the diagnosis of several diseases. Due to their capability to cross the blood–brain barrier (BBB), EVs not only have been suggested for the diagnosis of central nervous system disorders by means of minimally invasive procedures, i.e., “liquid biopsies”, but they are also considered attractive tools for targeted drug delivery across the BBB. From the therapeutic perspective, mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) represent one of the most promising sources of EVs. In particular, the neuroprotective properties of MSCs derived from the dental pulp are here discussed.
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Mitrečić D, Petrović DJ, Stančin P, Isaković J, Zavan B, Tricarico G, Kujundžić Tiljak M, Di Luca M. How to face the aging world - lessons from dementia research. Croat Med J 2020; 61:139-146. [PMID: 32378380 PMCID: PMC7230408] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2020] [Accepted: 03/28/2020] [Indexed: 07/30/2024] Open
Abstract
A continuous rise in life expectancy has led to an increase in the number of senior citizens, now amounting to a fifth of the global population, and to a dramatic increase in the prevalence of diseases of the elderly. This review discusses the threat of dementia, a disease that imposes enormous financial burden on health systems and warrants efficient therapeutic solutions. What we learned from numerous failed clinical trials is that we have to immediately take into account two major elements: early detection of dementia, much before the onset of symptoms, and personalized (precision) medicine treatment approach. We also discuss some of the most promising therapeutic directions, including stem cells, exosomes, electromagnetic fields, and ozone.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dinko Mitrečić
- Dinko Mitrečić, Laboratory for Stem Cells, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, Department of Histology and Embryology, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 3, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
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10
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Gardin C, Ferroni L, Latremouille C, Chachques JC, Mitrečić D, Zavan B. Recent Applications of Three Dimensional Printing in Cardiovascular Medicine. Cells 2020; 9:E742. [PMID: 32192232 PMCID: PMC7140676 DOI: 10.3390/cells9030742] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2020] [Revised: 03/06/2020] [Accepted: 03/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Three dimensional (3D) printing, which consists in the conversion of digital images into a 3D physical model, is a promising and versatile field that, over the last decade, has experienced a rapid development in medicine. Cardiovascular medicine, in particular, is one of the fastest growing area for medical 3D printing. In this review, we firstly describe the major steps and the most common technologies used in the 3D printing process, then we present current applications of 3D printing with relevance to the cardiovascular field. The technology is more frequently used for the creation of anatomical 3D models useful for teaching, training, and procedural planning of complex surgical cases, as well as for facilitating communication with patients and their families. However, the most attractive and novel application of 3D printing in the last years is bioprinting, which holds the great potential to solve the ever-increasing crisis of organ shortage. In this review, we then present some of the 3D bioprinting strategies used for fabricating fully functional cardiovascular tissues, including myocardium, heart tissue patches, and heart valves. The implications of 3D bioprinting in drug discovery, development, and delivery systems are also briefly discussed, in terms of in vitro cardiovascular drug toxicity. Finally, we describe some applications of 3D printing in the development and testing of cardiovascular medical devices, and the current regulatory frameworks that apply to manufacturing and commercialization of 3D printed products.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Gardin
- Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola (RA), Italy; (C.G.); (L.F.)
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 70, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Letizia Ferroni
- Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola (RA), Italy; (C.G.); (L.F.)
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 70, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Christian Latremouille
- Department of Cardiac Surgery Pompidou Hospital, Laboratory of Biosurgical Research, Carpentier Foundation, University Paris Descartes, 75105 Paris, France; (C.L.); (J.C.C.)
| | - Juan Carlos Chachques
- Department of Cardiac Surgery Pompidou Hospital, Laboratory of Biosurgical Research, Carpentier Foundation, University Paris Descartes, 75105 Paris, France; (C.L.); (J.C.C.)
| | - Dinko Mitrečić
- Laboratory for Stem Cells, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, School of Medicine University of Zagreb, Šalata 12, 10 000 Zagreb, Croatia;
| | - Barbara Zavan
- Maria Cecilia Hospital, GVM Care & Research, 48033 Cotignola (RA), Italy; (C.G.); (L.F.)
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, via Fossato di Mortara 70, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
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11
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Shi W, Que Y, Lv D, Bi S, Xu Z, Wang D, Zhang Z. Overexpression of TG2 enhances the differentiation of ectomesenchymal stem cells into neuron‑like cells and promotes functional recovery in adult rats following spinal cord injury. Mol Med Rep 2019; 20:2763-2773. [PMID: 31322240 PMCID: PMC6691247 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10502] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/26/2018] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Ectomesenchymal stem cells (EMSCs) represent a type of adult stem cells derived from the cranial neural crest. These cells are capable of self-renewal and have the potential for multidirectional differentiation. Tissue transglutaminase type 2 (TG2) is a ubiquitously expressed member of the transglutaminase family of Ca2+-dependent crosslinking enzymes. However, the effect of TG2 on neural differentiation and proliferation of EMSCs remains unknown. To determine whether TG2 improves EMSC proliferation and neurogenesis, a stable TG2-overexpressing EMSC cell line (TG2-EMSCs) was established by using an adenovirus system. Immunofluorescence staining and western blot analyses demonstrated that TG2 overexpression had beneficial effects on the rate of EMSC neurogenesis, and that the proliferative capacity of TG2-EMSCs was higher than that of controls. Furthermore, the results of western blotting revealed that extracellular matrix (ECM) and neurotrophic factors were upregulated during the differentiation of TG2-EMSCs. Notably, TG2-EMSC transplantation in an animal model of spinal cord injury (SCI), TG2-EMSCs differentiated into neuron-like cells and enhanced the repair of SCI. Taken together, these results demonstrated that TG2 gene transfection may offer a novel strategy to enhance EMSC proliferation and neurogenesis in vivo and in vitro, which may ultimately facilitate EMSC-based transplantation therapy in patients with SCI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wentao Shi
- Department of Orthopedics, Gaochun People's Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211300, P.R. China
| | - Yunduan Que
- Department of Orthopedics, Gaochun People's Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211300, P.R. China
| | - Demin Lv
- Department of Embryology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212001, P.R. China
| | - Shiqi Bi
- Department of Embryology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212001, P.R. China
| | - Zhonghua Xu
- Department of Orthopedics, Gaochun People's Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211300, P.R. China
| | - Dongmin Wang
- Department of Orthopedics, Gaochun People's Hospital of Nanjing, Nanjing, Jiangsu 211300, P.R. China
| | - Zhijian Zhang
- Department of Embryology, School of Medicine, Jiangsu University, Zhenjiang, Jiangsu 212001, P.R. China
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12
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Schizas N, König N, Andersson B, Vasylovska S, Hoeber J, Kozlova EN, Hailer NP. Neural crest stem cells protect spinal cord neurons from excitotoxic damage and inhibit glial activation by secretion of brain-derived neurotrophic factor. Cell Tissue Res 2018. [PMID: 29516218 PMCID: PMC5949140 DOI: 10.1007/s00441-018-2808-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
The acute phase of spinal cord injury is characterized by excitotoxic and inflammatory events that mediate extensive neuronal loss in the gray matter. Neural crest stem cells (NCSCs) can exert neuroprotective and anti-inflammatory effects that may be mediated by soluble factors. We therefore hypothesize that transplantation of NCSCs to acutely injured spinal cord slice cultures (SCSCs) can prevent neuronal loss after excitotoxic injury. NCSCs were applied onto SCSCs previously subjected to N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA)-induced injury. Immunohistochemistry and TUNEL staining were used to quantitatively study cell populations and apoptosis. Concentrations of neurotrophic factors were measured by ELISA. Migration and differentiation properties of NCSCs on SCSCs, laminin, or hyaluronic acid hydrogel were separately studied. NCSCs counteracted the loss of NeuN-positive neurons that was otherwise observed after NMDA-induced excitotoxicity, partly by inhibiting neuronal apoptosis. They also reduced activation of both microglial cells and astrocytes. The concentration of brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) was increased in supernatants from SCSCs cultured with NCSCs compared to SCSCs alone and BDNF alone mimicked the effects of NCSC application on SCSCs. NCSCs migrated superficially across the surface of SCSCs and showed no signs of neuronal or glial differentiation but preserved their expression of SOX2 and Krox20. In conclusion, NCSCs exert neuroprotective, anti-apoptotic and glia-inhibitory effects on excitotoxically injured spinal cord tissue, some of these effects mediated by secretion of BDNF. However, the investigated NCSCs seem not to undergo neuronal or glial differentiation in the short term since markers indicative of an undifferentiated state were expressed during the entire observation period.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nikos Schizas
- The OrthoLab, Department of Surgical Sciences, Section of Orthopaedics, Uppsala University, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden.
| | - N König
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine Centre (BMC) Uppsala, BOX 593, SE-751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - B Andersson
- The OrthoLab, Department of Surgical Sciences, Section of Orthopaedics, Uppsala University, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - S Vasylovska
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine Centre (BMC) Uppsala, BOX 593, SE-751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - J Hoeber
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine Centre (BMC) Uppsala, BOX 593, SE-751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - E N Kozlova
- Department of Neuroscience, Biomedicine Centre (BMC) Uppsala, BOX 593, SE-751 24, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - N P Hailer
- The OrthoLab, Department of Surgical Sciences, Section of Orthopaedics, Uppsala University, SE-751 85, Uppsala, Sweden
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13
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Doğan A. Embryonic Stem Cells in Development and Regenerative Medicine. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2018; 1079:1-15. [PMID: 29464659 DOI: 10.1007/5584_2018_175] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
After progressive improvement in embryonic stem (ES) cell field, several studies have been conducted to explore the usage of ES cells in regenerative medicine. Unlimited self renewal and pluripoteny properties, combined with encouraging preclinical trials, remark that ES cell technology might be promising for clinical practice. ES cells, which can form three germ layers in vitro, are potential candidates to study development at the cellular and molecular level. Understanding the cell fate decision and differentiation processes during development might enable generating functional progenitor cells for tissue restoration. Progression in gene modifications and tissue engineering technology has facilitated the derivation of desired cells for therapy. Success in differentiation protocols and identification the regulatory pathways simplify the research for clinical applications. Although there are established protocols for cell differentiation in vitro and promising preclinical studies in vivo, many challenges need to be adressed before clinical translation. In this review, ES cells are discussed as a model of development in vitro and as a potential candidate for regenerative medicine. This review also dissusses current challenges for ES cell based therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ayşegül Doğan
- National Cancer Institute, CDBL, NIH, Frederick, MD, USA.
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14
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Trolle C, Ivert P, Hoeber J, Rocamonde-Lago I, Vasylovska S, Lukanidin E, Kozlova EN. Boundary cap neural crest stem cell transplants contribute Mts1/S100A4-expressing cells in the glial scar. Regen Med 2017. [PMID: 28621171 DOI: 10.2217/rme-2016-0163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM During development, boundary cap neural crest stem cells (bNCSCs) assist sensory axon growth into the spinal cord. Here we repositioned them to test if they assist regeneration of sensory axons in adult mice after dorsal root avulsion injury. MATERIALS & METHODS Avulsed mice received bNCSC or human neural progenitor (hNP) cell transplants and their contributions to glial scar formation and sensory axon regeneration were analyzed with immunohistochemistry and transganglionic tracing. RESULTS hNPs and bNCSCs form similar gaps in the glial scar, but unlike hNPs, bNCSCs contribute Mts1/S100A4 (calcium-binding protein) expression to the scar and do not assist sensory axon regeneration. CONCLUSION bNCSC transplants contribute nonpermissive Mts1/S100A4-expressing cells to the glial scar after dorsal root avulsion.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carl Trolle
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Patrik Ivert
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Jan Hoeber
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | | | | | - Eugen Lukanidin
- Department of Molecular Cancer Biology, Danish Cancer Society Research Center, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Elena N Kozlova
- Department of Neuroscience, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
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15
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Lihong Z, Zhihong Z, Yanan S, Shuhua M, Weifeng Y, Hongtao L, Junling Z, Jingfeng O, Yi W. Velvet antler polypeptide is able to induce differentiation of neural stem cells towards neurons in vitro. J TRADIT CHIN MED 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/s0254-6272(17)30065-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
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16
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Xie S, Lu F, Han J, Tao K, Wang H, Simental A, Hu D, Yang H. Efficient generation of functional Schwann cells from adipose-derived stem cells in defined conditions. Cell Cycle 2017; 16:841-851. [PMID: 28296571 DOI: 10.1080/15384101.2017.1304328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Schwann cells (SCs) are hitherto regarded as the most promising candidates for viable cell-based therapy to peripheral nervous system (PNS) injuries or degenerative diseases. However, the extreme drawbacks of transplanting autologous SCs for clinical applications still represent a significant bottleneck in neural regenerative medicine, mainly owing to the need of sacrificing a functional nerve to generate autologous SCs and the nature of slow expansion of the SCs. Thus, it is of great importance to establish an alternative cell system for the generation of sufficient SCs. Here, we demonstrated that adipose-derived stem cells (ADSCs) of rat robustly give rise to morphological, phenotypic and functional SCs using an optimized protocol. After undergoing a 3-week in vitro differentiation, almost all of treated ADSCs exhibited spindle shaped morphology similar to genuine SCs and expressed SC markers GFAP and S100. Most importantly, apart from acquisition of SC antigenic and biochemical features, the ADSC-derived SCs were functionally identical to native SCs as they possess a potential ability to form myelin, and secret nerve growth factor (NGF), brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and glia-derived neurotrophic factor (GDNF). The current study may provide an ideal strategy for harvesting sufficient SCs for cell-based treatment of various peripheral nerve injuries or disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Songtao Xie
- a Department of Burn Surgery , Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an PR China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Xijing Hospital Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Fan Lu
- b Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology , China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Juntao Han
- a Department of Burn Surgery , Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an PR China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Xijing Hospital Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Ke Tao
- a Department of Burn Surgery , Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an PR China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Xijing Hospital Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Hongtao Wang
- a Department of Burn Surgery , Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an PR China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Xijing Hospital Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Alfred Simental
- c Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery , Loma Linda University Medical Center , Loma Linda , CA , USA
| | - Dahai Hu
- a Department of Burn Surgery , Xijing Hospital, Fourth Military Medical University, Xi'an PR China State Key Laboratory of Cancer Biology, Xijing Hospital Fourth Military Medical University , Xi'an , Shaanxi Province , China
| | - Hao Yang
- d Translational Medicine Center , Hong Hui Hospital, Xi'an Jiaotong University , Xi'an , Shaanxi , China
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17
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Human Embryonic Stem Cell-Derived Progenitors Assist Functional Sensory Axon Regeneration after Dorsal Root Avulsion Injury. Sci Rep 2015; 5:10666. [PMID: 26053681 PMCID: PMC4459081 DOI: 10.1038/srep10666] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2015] [Accepted: 04/24/2015] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Dorsal root avulsion results in permanent impairment of sensory functions due to disconnection between the peripheral and central nervous system. Improved strategies are therefore needed to reconnect injured sensory neurons with their spinal cord targets in order to achieve functional repair after brachial and lumbosacral plexus avulsion injuries. Here, we show that sensory functions can be restored in the adult mouse if avulsed sensory fibers are bridged with the spinal cord by human neural progenitor (hNP) transplants. Responses to peripheral mechanical sensory stimulation were significantly improved in transplanted animals. Transganglionic tracing showed host sensory axons only in the spinal cord dorsal horn of treated animals. Immunohistochemical analysis confirmed that sensory fibers had grown through the bridge and showed robust survival and differentiation of the transplants. Section of the repaired dorsal roots distal to the transplant completely abolished the behavioral improvement. This demonstrates that hNP transplants promote recovery of sensorimotor functions after dorsal root avulsion, and that these effects are mediated by spinal ingrowth of host sensory axons. These results provide a rationale for the development of novel stem cell-based strategies for functionally useful bridging of the peripheral and central nervous system.
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18
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Muñoz WA, Trainor PA. Neural crest cell evolution: how and when did a neural crest cell become a neural crest cell. Curr Top Dev Biol 2015; 111:3-26. [PMID: 25662256 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ctdb.2014.11.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
As vertebrates evolved from protochordates, they shifted to a more predatory lifestyle, and radiated and adapted to most niches of the planet. This process was largely facilitated by the generation of novel vertebrate head structures, which were derived from neural crest cells (NCC). The neural crest is a unique vertebrate cell population that is frequently termed the "fourth germ layer" because it forms in conjunction with the other germ layers and contributes to a diverse array of cell types and tissues including the craniofacial skeleton, the peripheral nervous system, and pigment cells among many other tissues and cell types. NCC are defined by their origin at the neural plate border, via an epithelial-to-mesenchymal transition (EMT), together with multipotency and polarized patterns of migration. These defining characteristics, which evolved independently in the germ layers of invertebrates, were subsequently co-opted through their gene regulatory networks to form NCC in vertebrates. Moreover, recent data suggest that the ability to undergo an EMT was one of the latter features co-opted by NCC. In this review, we discuss the potential origins of NCC and how they evolved to contribute to nearly all tissues and organs throughout the body, based on paleontological evidence together with an evaluation of the evolution of molecules involved in NCC development and their migratory cell paths.
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Affiliation(s)
- William A Muñoz
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, USA
| | - Paul A Trainor
- Stowers Institute for Medical Research, Kansas City, Missouri, USA; Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, Kansas, USA.
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