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Wang K, Shi X, Lin H, Xu T, Xu S. Selenium deficiency exacerbates ROS/ER stress mediated pyroptosis and ferroptosis induced by bisphenol A in chickens thymus. J Environ Sci (China) 2025; 148:13-26. [PMID: 39095152 DOI: 10.1016/j.jes.2024.01.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2023] [Revised: 01/10/2024] [Accepted: 01/10/2024] [Indexed: 08/04/2024]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an industrial pollutant that can cause immune impairment. Selenium acts as an antioxidant, as selenium deficiency often accompanies oxidative stress, resulting in organ damage. This study is the first to demonstrate that BPA and/or selenium deficiency induce pyroptosis and ferroptosis-mediated thymic injury in chicken and chicken lymphoma cell (MDCC-MSB-1) via oxidative stress-induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress. We established a broiler chicken model of BPA and/or selenium deficiency exposure and collected thymus samples as research subjects after 42 days. The results demonstrated that BPA or selenium deficiency led to a decrease in antioxidant enzyme activities (T-AOC, CAT, and GSH-Px), accumulation of peroxides (H2O2 and MDA), significant upregulation of ER stress-related markers (GRP78, IER 1, PERK, EIF-2α, ATF4, and CHOP), a significant increase in iron ion levels, significant upregulation of pyroptosis-related gene (NLRP3, ASC, Caspase1, GSDMD, IL-18 and IL-1β), significantly increase ferroptosis-related genes (TFRC, COX2) and downregulate GPX4, HO-1, FTH, NADPH. In vitro experiments conducted in MDCC-MSB-1 cells confirmed the results, demonstrating that the addition of antioxidant (NAC), ER stress inhibitor (TUDCA) and pyroptosis inhibitor (Vx765) alleviated oxidative stress, endoplasmic reticulum stress, pyroptosis, and ferroptosis. Overall, this study concludes that the combined effects of oxidative stress and ER stress mediate pyroptosis and ferroptosis in chicken thymus induced by BPA exposure and selenium deficiency.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kun Wang
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Xu Shi
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Hongjin Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China
| | - Tong Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China.
| | - Shiwen Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, China; Key Laboratory of the Provincial Education Department of Heilongjiang for Common Animal Disease Prevention and Treatment, China.
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Abd El-Hamid MI, El-Malt RMS, Khater SI, Abdelwarith AA, Khamis T, Abd El-Wahab RA, Younis EM, Davies SJ, Ibrahim Mohamed D, Mohamed RI, Zayed S, Abdelrahman MA, Ibrahim D. Impact of liposomal hesperetin in broilers: prospects for improving performance, antioxidant potential, immunity, and resistance against Listeria monocytogenes. Avian Pathol 2024:1-29. [PMID: 39169883 DOI: 10.1080/03079457.2024.2395357] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/16/2024] [Revised: 07/12/2024] [Accepted: 08/17/2024] [Indexed: 08/23/2024]
Abstract
Liposomal encapsulated phytogenics, such as liposomal hesperetin, are considered novel substitutes for antibiotics in the broiler industry owing to their improved nutritional and therapeutic properties. Therefore, our key goal was to investigate liposomal hesperetin impact on broiler growth performance, health, antioxidant status, tight junction proteins (TJP), and resistance against Listeria monocytogenes. Four broiler groups were fed 0, 150, 250, or 400 mg/kg of liposomal hesperetin-supplemented diets and experimentally infected with L. monocytogenes strain. Herein, liposomal hesperetin, especially at higher concentrations, augmented broilers FCR with upregulation of genes encoding TJP (occludin, JAM-2, MUC-2), and antioxidant attributes (GPX-1, SOD-1, CAT, HO-1, NQO1, COX2), which reflect enhancing health and welfare of broilers. Muscle antioxidant biomarkers were enhanced; meanwhile, muscle MDA, ROS, and H2O2 levels were reduced in response to 400 mg/kg of liposomal hesperetin. Liposomal hesperetin fortification reduced L. monocytogenes loads and expression levels of its virulence-related genes (flaA, hlyA, and ami). Remarkably, histopathological alterations in intestinal and brain tissues of L. monocytogenes-infected broilers were restored post-inclusion at higher levels of liposomal hesperetin, which reflects increase of the birds' resistance to L. monocytogenes infection. Transcription levels of genes encoding cytokines/chemokines (MyD88, AVBD6, CCL20, IL-1β, IL-18), and autophagy (Bcl-2, LC3, AMPK, AKT, CHOP, Bip, p62, XBP1) were ameliorated following dietary liposomal hesperetin fortification, which suggests enhancement of the birds' immunity and health. Collectively, our research recommends liposomal hesperetin application in broiler diets owing to its promoting impact on growth performance, antioxidant status, immunity, health, and welfare besides its antibacterial, and antivirulence characteristics to fight against L. monocytogenes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marwa I Abd El-Hamid
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Rania M S El-Malt
- Department of Bacteriology, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Zagazig Branch, Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Safaa I Khater
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | | | - Tarek Khamis
- Department of Pharmacology and Laboratory of Biotechnology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Reham A Abd El-Wahab
- Biochemistry Department, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Mansoura Branch, Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
| | - Elsayed M Younis
- Department of Zoology, College of Science, King Saudi University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - Simon J Davies
- Aquaculture Nutrition Research Unit (ANRU), Carna Research Station, College of Science and Engineering, Ryan Institute, University of Galway, Galway, Ireland
| | - Dalia Ibrahim Mohamed
- Department of Biochemistry, Animal Health Research Institute, Zagazig Branch, Agriculture Research Center, Zagazig, Egypt
| | - Rania I Mohamed
- Department of Pathology, Agricultural Research Center (ARC), Animal Health Research Institute, Mansoura Provincial Laboratory (AHRI-Mansoura), Cairo, Egypt
| | - Shimaa Zayed
- Biochemistry Department, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Mansoura Branch, Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud A Abdelrahman
- Bacteriology Department, Animal Health Research Institute (AHRI), Mansoura Branch, Agriculture Research Center (ARC), Giza, Egypt
| | - Doaa Ibrahim
- Department of Nutrition and Clinical Nutrition, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Zagazig University, Zagazig, Egypt
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Turra BO, Bonotto NCA, Teixeira CF, Chelotti ME, Rodrigues JR, Mastella MH, Azzolin VF, Ribeiro EE, Barbisan F, Cruz IBM. Bisphenol-A induced cyto-genotoxicity on retinal pigment epithelial cells is differentially modulated by a multi-supplement containing guarana, selenium, and L-carnitine. BRAZ J BIOL 2024; 84:e282840. [PMID: 38985071 DOI: 10.1590/1519-6984.282840] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2024] [Accepted: 04/30/2024] [Indexed: 07/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) may adversely affect human health by inducing oxidative stress and irreversible damage to cells. Bioactive compounds found in some functional foods, individually or in combination, can attenuate the negative effects of BPA exposure; an example is the multi-supplement containing guarana (Gua), selenium (Se), and L-carnitine (LC) -GSC- which has already demonstrated antioxidant, genoprotective, and immunomodulatory activities. This study aimed to determine the effect of GSC and its constituents on oxidative and genotoxic alterations triggered by BPA exposure in the retinal epithelial cell line. The cells exposed to BPA (0.001, 0.01, 0.1, 1, 3, and 10 µM) to determine the lowest concentration required to induce cyto-genotoxicity. ARPE-19 cells were then concomitantly exposed to the selected BPA concentration, GSC, and its components (Gua, 1.07 mg/mL; Se, 0.178 µg/mL; and LC, 1.43 mg/mL). Flow cytometry, biochemical assays, qRT-PCR, genotoxicity, apoptosis, and cellular proliferation. Based on our results, 10 µM of BPA could induce cyto-genotoxic and oxidative alterations. BPA did not alter the Bcl-2/BAX expression ratio but induced Casp3 and Casp8 overexpression, suggesting that apoptosis was induced mainly via the extrinsic pathway. GSC partially reversed the alterations triggered by BPA in ARPE-19 cells. However, Se had unexpected negative effects on ARPE-19 cells. The multi-supplement GSC may attenuate changes in oxidative and genotoxic markers related to exposure of ARPE-19 cells to BPA. our results revealed that the antioxidant, anti-apoptotic, and genoprotective properties of GSC were not universally shared by its individual, once Se did not exhibit any positive impact.
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Affiliation(s)
- B O Turra
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - N C A Bonotto
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - C F Teixeira
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - M E Chelotti
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - J R Rodrigues
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - M H Mastella
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Morfologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - V F Azzolin
- Fundação Universidade Aberta da Terceira Idade - FUnATI, Laboratório Gerontec, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - E E Ribeiro
- Fundação Universidade Aberta da Terceira Idade - FUnATI, Laboratório Gerontec, Manaus, AM, Brasil
| | - F Barbisan
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Patologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
| | - I B M Cruz
- Universidade Federal de Santa Maria - UFSM, Centro de Ciências da Saúde, Departamento de Patologia, Programa de Pós-graduação em Farmacologia, Laboratório de Biogenômica, Santa Maria, RS, Brasil
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Yadav R, Kumar D, Singh J, Jangra A. Environmental toxicants and nephrotoxicity: Implications on mechanisms and therapeutic strategies. Toxicology 2024; 504:153784. [PMID: 38518838 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2024.153784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2024] [Revised: 03/12/2024] [Accepted: 03/19/2024] [Indexed: 03/24/2024]
Abstract
Kidneys are one of the most important organs in the human body. In addition to filtering 200 liters of fluid every 24 hours, the kidney also regulates acid-base balance, maintains electrolyte balance, and removes waste and toxicants from the body. Nephrotoxicity is the term used to describe the deterioration of kidney function caused by the harmful effects of medications and various types of environmental toxicants. Exposure to environmental toxicants is an inevitable side effect in the world's increasing industrialization and even more prevalent in underdeveloped nations. Growing data over the past few years has illuminated the probable connection between environmental toxicants and nephrotoxicity. Phthalates, microplastics, acrylamide and bisphenol A are environmental toxicants of particular concern, which are known to have nephrotoxic effects. Such toxicants may accumulate in the kidneys of humans after being consumed, inhaled, or come into contact with the skin. They can enter cells through endocytosis and accumulate in the cytoplasm. Small-sized nephrotoxicants can cause a variety of ailments including inflammation with increased production of pro-inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress, mitochondrial dysfunction, autophagy, and apoptosis. This study uncovers the potential for new insights concerning the relationship between various environmental toxicants and kidney health. The objectives of this review is to establish information gaps, assess and identify the toxicity mechanisms of different nephrotoxicants, identify innovative pharmacological therapies that demonstrate promising therapeutic benefits/ relevance, and discuss the predictions for the future based on the analysis of the literature.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachna Yadav
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Interdisciplinary and Applied Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh-123031, Haryana, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Interdisciplinary and Applied Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh-123031, Haryana, India.
| | - Jiten Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Interdisciplinary and Applied Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh-123031, Haryana, India
| | - Ashok Jangra
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, School of Interdisciplinary and Applied Sciences, Central University of Haryana, Mahendragarh-123031, Haryana, India.
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Peng L, Chen S, Lin H, Wan C, Li X, Xu S, Li S. Bisphenol A exposure exacerbates tracheal inflammatory injury in selenium-deficient chickens by regulating the miR-155/TRAF3/ROS pathway. Int J Biol Macromol 2023; 253:127501. [PMID: 37866585 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.127501] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2023] [Revised: 10/05/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/24/2023]
Abstract
Bisphenol A (BPA) is an endocrine disruptor. Excessive BPA intake can damage the structure and function of the respiratory tract. Dietary selenium (Se) deficiency may also cause immune tissue damage. To investigate the potential mechanism of BPA on tracheal damage in selenium-deficient chickens and the role of microRNAs (miRNAs) in this process, we established in vitro and in vivo Se deficiency and BPA exposure models and screened out miR-155 for follow-up experiments. We further predicted and confirmed the targeting relationship between miR-155 and TRAF3 using TargetScan and dual luciferase assays and found that miR-155 was highly expressed and caused inflammatory damage. Further studies showed that BPA exposure increased airway oxidative stress, activated the NF-κB pathway, and caused inflammation and immune damage in selenium-deficient chickens, but down-regulating miR-155 and NAC treatment could reverse this phenomenon. This suggested that these pathways are regulated by the miR-155/TRAF3/ROS axis. In conclusion, BPA exposure aggravates airway inflammation in selenium-deficient chickens by regulating miR-155/TRAF3/ROS. This study revealed the mechanism of BPA exposure combined with Se deficiency in tracheal inflammatory injury in chickens and enriched the theoretical basis of BPA injury in poultry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lin Peng
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Shasha Chen
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Hongjin Lin
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China
| | - Chunyan Wan
- National Selenium-rich Product Quality Supervision and Inspection Center, Enshi 445000, PR China
| | - Xiang Li
- National Selenium-rich Product Quality Supervision and Inspection Center, Enshi 445000, PR China
| | - Shiwen Xu
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China.
| | - Shu Li
- College of Veterinary Medicine, Northeast Agricultural University, Harbin 150030, PR China.
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Ryabova YV, Minigalieva IA, Sutunkova MP, Klinova SV, Tsaplina AK, Valamina IE, Petrunina EM, Tsatsakis AM, Mamoulakis C, Stylianou K, Kuzmin SV, Privalova LI, Katsnelson BA. Toxic Kidney Damage in Rats Following Subchronic Intraperitoneal Exposure to Element Oxide Nanoparticles. TOXICS 2023; 11:791. [PMID: 37755801 PMCID: PMC10537166 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11090791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2023] [Revised: 08/31/2023] [Accepted: 09/12/2023] [Indexed: 09/28/2023]
Abstract
Chronic diseases of the urogenital tract, such as bladder cancer, prostate cancer, reproductive disorders, and nephropathies, can develop under the effects of chemical hazards in the working environment. In this respect, nanosized particles generated as by-products in many industrial processes seem to be particularly dangerous to organs such as the testes and the kidneys. Nephrotoxicity of element oxide particles has been studied in animal experiments with repeated intraperitoneal injections of Al2O3, TiO2, SiO2, PbO, CdO, CuO, and SeO nanoparticles (NPs) in total doses ranging from 4.5 to 45 mg/kg body weight of rats. NPs were synthesized by laser ablation. After cessation of exposure, we measured kidney weight and analyzed selected biochemical parameters in blood and urine, characterizing the state of the excretory system. We also examined histological sections of kidneys and estimated proportions of different cells in imprint smears of this organ. All element oxide NPs under investigation demonstrated a nephrotoxic effect following subchronic exposure. Following the exposure to SeO and SiO2 NPs, we observed a decrease in serum creatinine and urea, respectively. Exposure to Al2O3 NPs caused an increase in urinary creatinine and urea, while changes in total protein were controversial, as it increased under the effect of Al2O3 NPs and was reduced after exposure to CuO NPs. Histomorphological changes in kidneys are associated with desquamation of the epithelium (following the exposure to all NPs except those of Al2O3 and SiO2) and loss of the brush border (following the exposure to all NPs, except those of Al2O3, TiO2, and SiO2). The cytomorphological evaluation showed greater destruction of proximal sections of renal tubules. Compared to the controls, we observed statistically significant alterations in 42.1% (8 of 19) of parameters following the exposure to PbO, CuO, and SeO NPs in 21.1% (4 of 19)-following that, to CdO and Al2O3 NPs-and in 15.8% (3 of 19) and 10.5% (2 of 19) of indicators, following the exposure to TiO2 and SiO2 nanoparticles, respectively. Histomorphological changes in kidneys are associated with desquamation of epithelium and loss of the brush border. The cytomorphological evaluation showed greater destruction of proximal sections of renal tubules. The severity of cyto- and histological structural changes in kidneys depends on the chemical nature of NPs. These alterations are not always consistent with biochemical ones, thus impeding early clinical diagnosis of renal damage. Unambiguous ranking of the NPs examined by the degree of their nephrotoxicity is difficult. Additional studies are necessary to establish key indicators of the nephrotoxic effect, which can facilitate early diagnosis of occupational and nonoccupational nephropathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuliya V. Ryabova
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Ilzira A. Minigalieva
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Marina P. Sutunkova
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Svetlana V. Klinova
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Alexandra K. Tsaplina
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Irene E. Valamina
- Department of Pathology, Ural State Medical University, 620028 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Ekaterina M. Petrunina
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Aristides M. Tsatsakis
- Department of Forensic Sciences and Toxicology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
- Department of Human Ecology and Environmental Hygiene, IM Sechenov First Moscow State Medical University, 119991 Moscow, Russia
| | - Charalampos Mamoulakis
- Department of Urology, University General Hospital of Heraklion, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Kostas Stylianou
- Department of Nephrology, University General Hospital of Heraklion, Medical School, University of Crete, 71003 Heraklion, Greece
| | - Sergey V. Kuzmin
- Federal Budgetary Establishment of Science “F.F. Erisman Scientific Centre of Hygiene” of the Federal Service for Surveillance on Consumer Rights Protection and Human Wellbeing, 141014 Mytishchi, Russia
| | - Larisa I. Privalova
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
| | - Boris A. Katsnelson
- Yekaterinburg Medical Research Center for Prophylaxis and Health Protection in Industrial Workers, 620014 Yekaterinburg, Russia
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Zhang X, Flaws JA, Spinella MJ, Irudayaraj J. The Relationship between Typical Environmental Endocrine Disruptors and Kidney Disease. TOXICS 2022; 11:32. [PMID: 36668758 PMCID: PMC9863798 DOI: 10.3390/toxics11010032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/27/2022] [Indexed: 05/12/2023]
Abstract
Endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are exogenous substances that alter the endocrine function of an organism, to result in adverse effects on growth and development, metabolism, and reproductive function. The kidney is one of the most important organs in the urinary system and an accumulation point. Studies have shown that EDCs can cause proteinuria, affect glomeruli and renal tubules, and even lead to diabetes and renal fibrosis in animal and human studies. In this review, we discuss renal accumulation of select EDCs such as dioxins, per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), bisphenol A (BPA), and phthalates, and delineate how exposures to such EDCs cause renal lesions and diseases, including cancer. The regulation of typical EDCs with specific target genes and the activation of related pathways are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xing Zhang
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Jodi A. Flaws
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Michael J. Spinella
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
| | - Joseph Irudayaraj
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Department of Comparative Biosciences, College of Veterinary Medicine, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Carl Woese Institute for Genomic Biology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Cancer Center at Illinois, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
- Beckman Institute of Technology, University of Illinois Urbana-Champaign, Urbana, IL 61801, USA
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