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McClain AM, Field CL, Norris TA, Borremans B, Duignan PJ, Johnson SP, Whoriskey ST, Thompson-Barbosa L, Gulland FMD. The symptomatology and diagnosis of domoic acid toxicosis in stranded California sea lions ( Zalophus californianus): a review and evaluation of 20 years of cases to guide prognosis. Front Vet Sci 2023; 10:1245864. [PMID: 37850065 PMCID: PMC10577433 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2023.1245864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2023] [Accepted: 09/04/2023] [Indexed: 10/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Introduction Domoic acid (DA) is a glutaminergic excitatory neurotoxin that causes the morbidity and mortality of California sea lions (Zalophus californianus; CSL) and other marine mammals due to a suite of effects mostly on the nervous and cardiac systems. Between 1998 and 2019, 11,737 live-stranded CSL were admitted to The Marine Mammal Center (TMMC; Sausalito, CA, USA), over 2,000 of which were intoxicated by DA. A plethora of clinical research has been performed over the past 20 years to characterize the range of toxic effects of DA exposure on CSLs, generating the largest dataset on the effects of natural exposure to this toxin in wildlife. Materials and methods In this study, we review published methods for diagnosing DA intoxication, clinical presentation, and treatment of DA-intoxicated CSL and present a practical, reproducible scoring system called the neuroscore (NS) to help assess whether a DA-affected CSL is fit for release to the wild following rehabilitation. Logistic regression models were used to assess the relationships between outcome (released vs. euthanized or died) and multiple variables to predict the outcome for a subset of 92 stranded CSLs. Results The largest proportion of DA-intoxicated CSLs was adult females (58.6%). The proportions of acute and chronic cases were 63.5 and 36.5% respectively, with 44% of affected CSL released and 56% either dying naturally or euthanized. The average time in rehabilitation was 15.9 days (range 0-169) for all outcomes. The best-performing model (85% accuracy; area under the curve = 0.90) assessing the relationship between outcome and predictor variables consisted of four variables: final NS, change in NS over time, whether the animal began eating in rehabilitation, and the state of nutrition on admission. Discussion Our results provide longitudinal information on the symptomatology of CSL intoxicated by domoic acid and suggest that a behavioral scoring system is a useful tool to assess the fitness for the release of DA-intoxicated CSL.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Cara L. Field
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
| | | | - Benny Borremans
- Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA, United States
- Evolutionary Ecology Group, University of Antwerp, Antwerp, Belgium
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Potential endocrine correlation with exposure to domoic acid in Southern Right Whale (Eubalaena australis) at the Península Valdés breeding ground. Oecologia 2021; 198:21-34. [PMID: 34800166 DOI: 10.1007/s00442-021-05078-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/07/2021] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
In waters off Península Valdés (PV), Argentina, southern right whales (SRW, Eubalaena australis) are occasionally exposed to domoic acid (DA), a neurotoxin produced by diatoms of the genus Pseudo-nitzschia. Domoic acid toxicity in marine mammals can cause gastrointestinal and neurological clinical signs, alterations in hematologic and endocrine variables, and can be fatal in extreme cases. In this study, we validated an enzyme immunoassay to quantify fecal glucocorticoid metabolites (fGCm) in 16 SRW fecal samples from live and dead stranded whales in PV from 2013 to 2018 and assessed fGCm levels associated with DA exposure. Overall, fGCm levels were significantly lower in SRWs with detectable fecal DA (n = 3) as compared to SRWs with undetectable fecal DA levels (n = 13). The highest fecal DA was observed in a live lactating female, which had low fGCm compared to the other lactating females studied. The highest fGCm was observed in a lactating female with undetectable DA; interestingly, at the time of sample collection, this female was sighted with two calves, an extremely unusual occurrence in this species. Though the sample size of these exceptionally rare breeding-season fecal samples was unavoidably small, our study provides evidence of potential adrenal alterations in whales exposed to an environmental neurotoxin such as DA.
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D'Agostino VC, Degrati M, Sastre V, Santinelli N, Krock B, Krohn T, Dans SL, Hoffmeyer MS. Domoic acid in a marine pelagic food web: Exposure of southern right whales Eubalaena australis to domoic acid on the Península Valdés calving ground, Argentina. HARMFUL ALGAE 2017; 68:248-257. [PMID: 28962985 DOI: 10.1016/j.hal.2017.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2017] [Revised: 09/02/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
The gulfs that surround Península Valdés (PV), Golfo Nuevo and Golfo San José in Argentina, are important calving grounds for the southern right whale Eubalaena australis. However, high calf mortality events in recent years could be associated with phycotoxin exposure. The present study evaluated the transfer of domoic acid (DA) from Pseudo-nitzschia spp., potential producers of DA, to living and dead right whales via zooplanktonic vectors, while the whales are on their calving ground at PV. Phytoplankton and mesozooplankton (primary prey of the right whales at PV and potential grazers of Pseudo-nitzschia cells) were collected during the 2015 whale season and analyzed for species composition and abundance. DA was measured in plankton and fecal whale samples (collected during whale seasons 2013, 2014 and 2015) using liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). The genus Pseudo-nitzschia was present in both gulfs with abundances ranging from 4.4×102 and 4.56×105 cell l-1. Pseudo-nitzschia australis had the highest abundance with up to 4.56×105 cell l-1. DA in phytoplankton was generally low, with the exception of samples collected during a P. australis bloom. No clear correlation was found between DA in phytoplankton and mesozooplankton samples. The predominance of copepods in mesozooplankton samples indicates that they were the primary vector for the transfer of DA from Pseudo-nitzschia spp. to higher trophic levels. High levels of DA were detected in four whale fecal samples (ranging from 0.30 to 710μgg-1 dry weight of fecal sample or from 0.05 and 113.6μgg-1 wet weight assuming a mean water content of 84%). The maximum level of DA detected in fecal samples (710μg DA g-1 dry weight of fecal sample) is the highest reported in southern right whales to date. The current findings demonstrate for the first time that southern right whales, E. australis, are exposed to DA via copepods as vectors during their calving season in the gulfs of PV.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria C D'Agostino
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR), CCT CENPAT, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina.
| | - Mariana Degrati
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR), CCT CENPAT, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia, San Juan Bosco, Boulevard Brown 3150, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Viviana Sastre
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Roca 115, 1er Piso, U9100AQC Trelew, Argentina
| | - Norma Santinelli
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia San Juan Bosco, Roca 115, 1er Piso, U9100AQC Trelew, Argentina
| | - Bernd Krock
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Torben Krohn
- Alfred Wegener Institut-Helmholtz Zentrum für Polar- und Meeresforschung, Chemische Ökologie, Am Handelshafen 12, 27570 Bremerhaven, Germany
| | - Silvana L Dans
- Centro para el Estudio de Sistemas Marinos (CESIMAR), CCT CENPAT, CONICET, Boulevard Brown 2915, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina; Universidad Nacional de la Patagonia, San Juan Bosco, Boulevard Brown 3150, U9120ACV Puerto Madryn, Chubut, Argentina
| | - Mónica S Hoffmeyer
- Instituto Argentino de Oceanografía (IADO), CONICET-Bahía Blanca, Camino La Carrindanga Km 7.5, B8000FWB Bahía Blanca, Argentina; Facultad Regional Bahía Blanca, Universidad Tecnológica Nacional, 11 de Abril 461, B8000LMI Bahía Blanca, Argentina
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Lahvis GP. What California sea lions exposed to domoic acid might teach us about autism: lessons for predictive and preventive medicine. EPMA J 2017; 8:229-235. [PMID: 29021833 PMCID: PMC5607054 DOI: 10.1007/s13167-017-0118-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) shares many biological and behavioral similarities with the deleterious effects of domoic acid (DA) exposure. DA is produced by marine algae and most commonly by species of Pseudo-nitzschia. Humans and marine mammals can be exposed to DA when they consume whole fish or shellfish. The mammalian fetus is highly sensitive to the deleterious effects of DA exposure. Both ASD and exposures to toxic levels of DA feature repetitive behaviors, challenges with social interaction, and seizures. They can also share a commonality in brain anatomy and function, particularly the balance between excitatory and inhibitory mechanisms. The current article is relevant to predictive, preventive, and personalized medicine for three reasons. First, shellfish consumption may be a risk factor for ASD and the regulatory limit for DA should be adjusted to prevent this possibility. Human contributions to increased algal production of DA in coastal waters should be identified and reduced. Second, evaluations of sentinel species wild and free-roaming in the environment, though typically outside the purview of biomedical research, should be much more fully employed to gain insights to risk factors for human disease. To better identify and prevent disease, biomedical researchers should study wild populations. Third, studies of DA exposure highlight the possibility that glutamate additives to processed foods may also have deleterious impacts on human brain development and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garet Paul Lahvis
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239 USA
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Cook PF, Reichmuth C, Rouse A, Dennison S, Van Bonn B, Gulland F. Natural exposure to domoic acid causes behavioral perseveration in Wild Sea lions: Neural underpinnings and diagnostic application. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2016; 57:95-105. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2016.08.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2016] [Revised: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 08/05/2016] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
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Mills BD, Pearce HL, Khan O, Jarrett BR, Fair DA, Lahvis GP. Prenatal domoic acid exposure disrupts mouse pro-social behavior and functional connectivity MRI. Behav Brain Res 2016; 308:14-23. [PMID: 27050322 PMCID: PMC4918767 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.03.039] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2015] [Revised: 03/18/2016] [Accepted: 03/22/2016] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Domoic acid (DA) is a toxin produced by marine algae and known primarily for its role in isolated outbreaks of Amnestic Shellfish Poisoning and for the damage it inflicts on marine mammals, particularly California sea lions. Lethal effects of DA are often preceded by seizures and coma. Exposure to DA during development can result in subtle and highly persistent effects on brain development and include behavioral changes that resemble diagnostic features of schizophrenia and anomalies in social behavior we believe are relevant to autism spectrum disorder (ASD). To more fully examine this hypothesis, we chose to examine adolescent mice exposed in utero to DA for endpoints relevant to ASD, specifically changes in social behavior and network structure, the latter measured by resting state functional connectivity (rs-fcMRI). We found that male offspring exposed in utero to DA expressed reproducible declines in social interaction and atypical patterns of functional connectivity in the anterior cingulate, a region of the default mode network that is critical for social functioning. We also found disruptions in global topology in regions involved in the processing of reward, social, and sensory experiences. Finally, we found that DA exposed males expressed a pattern of local over-connectivity. These anomalies in brain connectivity bear resemblance to connectivity patterns in ASD and help validate DA-exposed mice as a model of this mental disability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian D Mills
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Hadley L Pearce
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Omar Khan
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Ben R Jarrett
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Damien A Fair
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States; Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Garet P Lahvis
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States.
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