Wheat germ initiation factor 2 (WG x eIF2) decreases the inhibition in protein synthesis and eIF2B activity of reticulocyte lysates mediated by eIF2alpha phosphorylation

Review: Emerging roles of the signaling network of the protein kinase GCN2 in the plant stress response

The pan-eukaryotic protein kinase GCN2 (General Control Nonderepressible2) regulates the translation of mRNAs in response to external and metabolic conditions. Although GCN2 and its substrate, translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2) α, and several partner proteins are substantially conserved in plants, this kinase has assumed novel functions in plants, including in innate immunity and retrograde signaling between the chloroplast and cytosol. How exactly some of the biochemical paradigms of the GCN2 system have diverged in the green plant lineage is only partially resolved. Specifically, conflicting data underscore and cast doubt on whether GCN2 regulates amino acid biosynthesis; also whether phosphorylation of eIF2α can in fact repress global translation or activate mRNA specific translation via upstream open reading frames; and whether GCN2 is controlled in vivo by the level of uncharged tRNA. This review examines the status of research on the eIF2α kinase, GCN2, its function in the response to xenobiotics, pathogens, and abiotic stress conditions, and its rather tenuous role in the translational control of mRNAs.

Phosphorylation of the alpha-subunit of plant eukaryotic initiation factor 2 prevents its association with polysomes but does not considerably suppress protein synthesis

Phosphorylation of the α-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) and subsequent inhibition of protein synthesis is a major survival response to different stresses in animal and yeast cells. However, the role of this regulatory mechanism in plants is not unambiguously established to date. Here we describe a slight reduction of polysome abundance in Nicotiana benthamiana after the transient expression of a cDNA, AteIF2α(S56D), encoding a phosphomimetic form of Arabidopsis thaliana eIF2α. In contrast, the expression of a cDNA, AteIF2α(S56A), that encodes a non-phosphorylatable form of AteIF2α caused slightly elevated polysome formation compared to the control. Recombinant AteIF2α(S56A) was detected in association with 40S ribosomal subunit-containing complexes and also in the polysomal fraction, while recombinant AteIF2α(S56D) was detected mainly in complex with 40S subunits. Intentional phosphorylation of TaeIF2α induced by L-histidinol in a wheat germ (Triticum aestivum) cell-free extract did not reduce the abundance of polysomes. Interestingly, the phosphorylated TaeIF2(αP) was not detected in the polysomal fraction, similar to AteIF2α(S56D) in the in vivo experiment. Using mRNAs with a 'Strepto-tag' in the 3' untranslated region, the 48S pre-initiation complexes isolated from histidinol-treated wheat germ extracts were shown to contain phosphorylated TaeIF2(αP). Thus, the phosphorylation of plant eIF2 does not greatly affect its ability to participate in the initiation of mRNA translation, in contrast to animals and yeast, in which eIF2α phosphorylation results in profound suppression of protein synthesis.

Evidence That Phosphorylation of the α-Subunit of eIF2 Does Not Essentially Inhibit mRNA Translation in Wheat Germ Cell-Free System

A mechanism based on reversible phosphorylation of the α-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2α) has been confirmed as an important regulatory pathway for the inhibition of protein synthesis in mammalian and yeast cells, while plants constitute the significant exception. We studied the induction of TaeIF2α phosphorylation in germinated wheat (Triticum aestivum) embryos subjected to different adverse conditions. Data confirmed that formation of TaeIF2(αP) was not a general response, as no phosphorylation was observed under salt, oxidative, or heat stress. Nevertheless, treatment by salicylic acid, UV-light, cold shock and histidinol did induce phosphorylation of TaeIF2α of wheat as has been established previously for AteIF2α in Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana). The influence of TaeIF2α phosphorylation on translation of reporter mRNA with different 5'-untranslated regions (5'UTRs) was studied in wheat germ cell-free system (WG-CFS), in which TaeIF2α was first phosphorylated either by heterologous recombinant human protein kinase, HsPKR (activated by double-stranded (ds)RNA), or by endogenous protein kinase TaGCN2 (activated by histidinol). Pretreatment of WG-CFS with HsPKR in the presence of dsRNA or with histidinol resulted in intense phosphorylation of TaeIF2α; however, the translation levels of all tested mRNAs decreased by only 10-15% and remained relatively high. In addition, factor OceIF2 from rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) bound GDP much more strongly than the homologous factor TaeIF2 from wheat germ. Furthermore, factor OceIF2B was able to stimulate guanine nucleotide exchange (GDP→GTP) on OceIF2 but had no effect on a similar exchange on TaeIF2. These results suggest that the mechanism of stress response via eIF2α phosphorylation is not identical in all eukaryotes, and further research is required to find and study in detail new plant-specific mechanisms that may inhibit overall protein synthesis in plants under stress.

Protein kinase GCN2 mediates responses to glyphosate in Arabidopsis

BACKGROUND

The increased selection pressure of the herbicide glyphosate has played a role in the evolution of glyphosate-resistance in weedy species, an issue that is becoming a threat to global agriculture. The molecular components involved in the cellular toxicity response to this herbicide at the expression level are still unidentified.

RESULTS

In this study, we identify the protein kinase GCN2 as a cellular component that fosters the action of glyphosate in the model plant Arabidopsis thaliana. Comparative studies using wild-type and gcn2 knock-out mutant seedlings show that the molecular programme that the plant deploys after the treatment with the herbicide, is compromised in gcn2. Moreover, gcn2 adult plants show a lower inhibition of photosynthesis, and both seedlings and adult gcn2 plants accumulate less shikimic acid than wild-type after treatment with glyphosate.

CONCLUSIONS

These results points to an unknown GCN2-dependent factor involved in the cascade of events triggered by glyphosate in plants. Data suggest either that the herbicide does not equally reach the target-enzyme in a gcn2 background, or that a decreased flux in the shikimate pathway in a gcn2 plants minimize the impact of enzyme inhibition.

A critical review of translation initiation factor eIF2α kinases in plants - regulating protein synthesis during stress

Eukaryotic cells must cope with environmental stress. One type of general stress response is the downregulation of protein synthesis in order to conserve cellular resources. Protein synthesis is mainly regulated at the level of mRNA translation initiation and when the α subunit of eukaryotic translation initiation factor 2 (eIF2) is phosphorylated, protein synthesis is downregulated. Although eIF2 has the same translation initiation function in all eukaryotes, it is not known whether plants downregulate protein synthesis via eIF2α phosphorylation. Similarly, although there is evidence that plants possess eIF2α kinases, it is not known whether they operate in a similar manner to the well characterised mammalian and yeast eIF2α kinases. Two types of eIF2α kinases have been reported in plants, yet the full understanding of the plant eIF2α phosphorylation mechanism is still lacking. Here we review the current knowledge of the eIF2α phosphorylation mechanism within plants and discuss plant eIF2α, plant eIF2α kinase GCN2 and the data supporting and contradicting the hypothesis that a functional orthologue for the eIF2α kinase PKR, is present and functional in plants.

Translation and phosphorylation of wheat germ lysate: phosphorylation of wheat germ initiation factor 2 by casein kinase II and in N-ethylmaleimide-treated lysates

Previously, we observed that N-ethylmaleimide (NEM), a thiol-alkylating agent, was found to stimulate the phosphorylation of several proteins in translating wheat germ (WG) lysates, including the phosphorylation of alpha, the p41-42 doublet subunit, and beta, the p36 subunit, of the WG initiation factor 2 (eIF2). We find now that NEM increases phosphorylation of several proteins significantly in lysates which are moderate or low in their translation compared to optimally active lysates. Heat treatment, which stimulates oxidation of protein sulfhydryls, decreases the translation and phosphorylation ability of WG lysates. The decrease in phosphorylation, but not translation, that occurs in heat-treated lysates is prevented very efficiently by NEM and partially by reducing agents such as dithiothreitol (DTT) and GSH. DTT prevents, however, completely the loss of sulfhydryl content of heat-treated WG lysates and does not at all prevent heat-induced inhibition of translation. In contrast, DTT prevents completely the diamide-induced translational inhibition and also the loss of sulfhydryl content. These findings therefore suggest that in addition to the maintenance of sulfhydryl groups, heat-labile proteins and their interactions with other proteins play an important role in overall translation and phosphorylation. It is also observed here that heat treatment stimulates the phosphorylation of rabbit reticulocyte eIF2 alpha but not the alpha subunit (p41-42 doublet) of WG eIF2. A phosphospecific anti-eIF2 alpha antibody recognizes the WG eIF2 alpha(P) that is phosphorylated by an authentic eIF2 alpha kinase such as double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase, but it is unable to recognize the eIF2 alpha that is phosphorylated in NEM-treated lysates. These findings therefore suggest that phosphorylation of WG eIF2 alpha in NEM-treated lysates occurs on a site different from the serine 51 residue that is phosphorylated by authentic eIF2 alpha kinases. In addition, it also suggests that WG eIF2 alpha, unlike reticulocyte eIF2 alpha, is phosphorylated by eIF2 alpha kinases and also by other kinases. Consistent with this idea, it has been observed here that casein kinase II (CKII) phosphorylates WG eIF2 alpha and the phosphorylation is enhanced by NEM in vitro and in lysates. The phosphopeptide analysis suggests that WG eIF2 alpha has separate phosphorylation sites for CKII and heme-regulated eIF2 alpha kinase (a well-characterized mammalian eIF2 alpha kinase), and NEM-induced phosphorylation in WG lysates resembles CKII-mediated phosphorylation.

Functional complementation by wheat eIF2alpha in the yeast GCN2-mediated pathway

Translational control by specific eIF2alpha phosphorylation on serine 51 has been characterized in all eukaryotes with the significant exception of plants. In order to evaluate the capability of plant eIF2alpha to functionally control translation, the wild type (51S) and a nonphosphorylatable mutant (51A) of wheat eIF2alpha were expressed in a yeast genetic system. Expression of either wheat protein did not handicap growth under conditions that repress the eIF2alpha phosphorylation pathway. However, under conditions that induce specific eIF2alpha phosphorylation only strains expressing wheat 51S were able to grow between 2 and 4 days. Growth was dependent upon activity of yeast eIF2alpha kinase GCN2 and resulted in the increased translation of GCN4. The association between plant eIF2alpha and yeast eIF2B is supported by their specific coimmunoprecipitation from transgenic yeast cells. These data support the similarity among eukaryotic translational initiation processes and strengthen the concept that plants may contain an eIF2alpha phosphorylation pathway.

Phosphorylation of serine 51 in initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2 alpha) promotes complex formation between eIF2 alpha(P) and eIF2B and causes inhibition in the guanine nucleotide exchange activity of eIF2B

Phosphorylation of serine 51 residue on the alpha-subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2alpha) inhibits the guanine nucleotide exchange (GNE) activity of eIF2B, presumably, by forming a tight complex with eIF2B. Inhibition of the GNE activity of eIF2B leads to impairment in eIF2 recycling and protein synthesis. We have partially purified the wild-type (wt) and mutants of eIF2alpha in which the serine 51 residue was replaced with alanine (51A mutant) or aspartic acid (51D mutant) in the baculovirus system. Analysis of these mutants has provided novel insight into the role of 51 serine in the interaction between eIF2 and eIF2B. Neither mutant was phosphorylated in vitro. Both mutants decreased eIF2alpha phosphorylation occurring in hemin and poly(IC)-treated reticulocyte lysates due to the activation of double-stranded RNA-dependent protein kinase (PKR). However, addition of 51D, but not 51A mutant eIF2alpha protein promoted inhibition of the GNE activity of eIF2B in hemin-supplemented rabbit reticulocyte lysates in which relatively little or no endogenous eIF2alpha phosphorylation occurred. The 51D mutant enhanced the inhibition in GNE activity of eIF2B that occurred in hemin and poly(IC)-treated reticulocyte lysates where PKR is active. Our results show that the increased interaction between eIF2 and eIF2B protein, occurring in reticulocyte lysates due to increased eIF2alpha phosphorylation, is decreased significantly by the addition of mutant 51A protein but not 51D. Consistent with the idea that mutant 51D protein behaves like a phosphorylated eIF2alpha, addition of this partially purified recombinant subunit, but not 51A or wt eIF2alpha, increases the interaction between eIF2 and 2B proteins in actively translating hemin-supplemented lysates. These findings support the idea that phosphorylation of the serine 51 residue in eIF2alpha promotes complex formation between eIF2alpha(P) and eIF2B and thereby inhibits the GNE activity of eIF2B.

In vivo regulation of protein synthesis by phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of wheat eukaryotic initiation factor 2

The regulation of protein synthesis is a critical component in the maintenance of cellular homeostasis. A major mechanism of translational control in response to diverse abiotic and biotic stress signals involves the phosphorylation of the alpha subunit of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 (eIF2alpha). The pathway has been demonstrated in all eukaryotes except plants, although components of a putative plant pathway have been characterized. To evaluate the in vivo capability of plant eIF2alpha to participate in the translation pathway, we have used vaccinia virus recombinants that constitutively express wheat eIF2alpha and inducibly express the eIF2alpha dsRNA-stimulated protein kinase, PKR, in BSC-40 cells. Activation of PKR in cells expressing wild-type wheat eIF2alpha resulted in an inhibition of cellular and viral protein synthesis and an induction of cellular apoptosis correlating with phosphorylation of eIF2alpha on serine 51. Expression of a nonphosphorylatable mutant (51A) of plant eIF2alpha reversed the PKR-mediated translational block as well as the PKR-induced apoptosis. A direct interaction of the plant proteins with the mammalian translational initiation apparatus is supported by coimmunoprecipitation of wild-type plant eIF2alpha and the 51A mutant with mammalian eIF2gamma and the localization of the plant proteins in ribosome fractions. These findings suggest that plant eIF2alpha is capable of interacting with the guanine nucleotide exchange factor eIF2B within the context of the eIF2 holoenzyme and provide direct evidence for its ability to participate in phosphorylation-mediated translational control in vivo.

Serine 48 in initiation factor 2 alpha (eIF2 alpha) is required for high-affinity interaction between eIF2 alpha(P) and eIF2B

Phosphorylation of the serine 51 residue in the alpha-subunit of translational initiation factor 2 in eukaryotes (eIF2 alpha) impairs protein synthesis presumably by sequestering eIF2B, a rate-limiting pentameric guanine nucleotide exchange protein which catalyzes the exchange of GTP for GDP in the eIF2-GDP binary complex. To further understand the importance of eIF2 alpha phosphorylation in the interaction between eIF2 alpha(P) and eIF2B proteins and thereby the regulation of eIF2B activity, we expressed the wild type (wt) and a mutant eIF2 alpha in which the serine 48 residue was replaced with alanine (48A mutant) in the baculovirus system. The findings reveal that the expression of both of these recombinant subunits was very efficient (15-20% of the total protein) and both proteins were recognized by an eIF2 alpha monoclonal antibody and were phosphorylated to the same extent by reticulocyte eIF2 alpha kinases. However, partially purified recombinant subunits (wt or 48A mutant) were not phosphorylated as efficiently as the eIF2 alpha subunit present in the purified reticulocyte trimeric eIF2 complex and were also found to inhibit the phosphorylation of eIF2 alpha of the trimeric complex. Furthermore, the extents of inhibition of eIF2B activity and formation of the eIF2 alpha(P)-eIF2B complex that occurs due to eIF2 alpha phosphorylation in poly(IC)-treated rabbit reticulocyte lysates were decreased significantly in the presence of insect cell extracts expressing the 48A mutant eIF2 alpha compared to those for wt. These findings support the hypothesis that the serine 48 residue is required for high-affinity interaction between eIF2 alpha(P) and eIF2B.