Effect of vitamin A deficiency on the expression of low affinity glucocorticoid binding site activity and glucocorticoid-dependent induction of CYP3A2 in rat liver

Exocrine pancreas trans-differentiation to hepatocytes--a physiological response to elevated glucocorticoid in vivo

Damage or ectopic expression of some growth factors can lead to the appearance of hepatocyte-like cells within the pancreas. Since glucocorticoids promote liver hepatocyte phenotype in vitro, the effect of glucocorticoid on pancreatic differentiation in vivo was examined. Treatment of rats with glucocorticoid for 25 days at levels that significantly inhibited weight gain resulted in the appearance of acinar cells expressing cytokeratin 7 and hepatocyte markers glutamine synthetase, carbamoyl phosphate synthetase and cytochrome P450 2E (the nomenclature employed is that given at http://drnelson.utmem.edu/CytochromeP450.html). Using a plastic pancreatic acinar cell line, this response was shown to be associated with changes in the regulation of WNT signalling-related gene expression and a repression of WNT signalling activity. These data suggest that a pathological response of the pancreas in vivo to elevated glucocorticoid is a differentiation of exocrine pancreatic cells or pancreatic progenitor cells to an hepatocyte-like phenotype.

Low affinity glucocorticoid binding site ligands as potential anti-fibrogenics

BACKGROUND

Pregnane X receptor (PXR) agonists inhibit liver fibrosis. However, the rodent PXR activator pregnenolone 16alpha carbonitrile (PCN) blocks, in vitro, hepatic stellate cell-to-myofibroblast trans-differentiation and proliferation in cells from mice with a disrupted PXR gene, suggesting there is an additional anti-fibrogenic drug target for PCN. The role of the low affinity glucocorticoid binding site (LAGS) - which may be identical or associated with the progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) - in mediating this anti-fibrogenic effect has been examined, since binding of dexamethasone to the LAGS in liver microsomal membranes has previously been shown to be inhibited by PCN.

RESULTS

Quiescent rat and human hepatic stellate cells (HSC) were isolated from livers and cultured to generate liver myofibroblasts. HSC and myofibroblasts expressed PGRMC1 as determined by RT-PCR and Western blotting. Quiescent rat HSC also expressed the truncated HC5 variant of rPGRMC1. Rat PGRMC1 was cloned and expression in COS-7 cells gave rise to specific binding of radiolabelled dexamethasone in cell extracts that was inhibited by PCN, suggesting that PGRMC1 may be identical to LAGS or activates LAGS binding activity. Liver microsomes were used to screen a range of structurally related compounds for their ability to inhibit radiolabelled dexamethasone binding to rat LAGS. These compounds were also screened for their ability to activate rat and human PXR and to inhibit rat HSC-to-myofibroblast trans-differentiation/proliferation. A compound (4 androstene-3-one 17beta-carboxylic acid methyl ester) was identified which bound rat LAGS with high affinity and inhibited both rat and human HSC trans-differentiation/proliferation to fibrogenic myofibroblasts without showing evidence of rat or human PXR agonism. However, despite potent anti-fibrogenic effects in vitro, this compound did not modulate liver fibrosis severity in a rat model of liver fibrosis. Immunohistochemical analysis showed that rat liver myofibroblasts in vivo did not express rPGRMC1.

CONCLUSION

LAGS ligands inhibit HSC trans-differentiation and proliferation in vitro but show little efficacy in inhibiting liver fibrosis, in vivo. The reason(s) for this disparity is/are likely associated with an altered myofibroblast phenotype, in vitro, with expression of rPGMRC1 in vitro but not in vivo. These data emphasize the limitations of in vitro-derived myofibroblasts for predicting their activity in vivo, in studies of fibrogenesis. The data also demonstrate that the anti-fibrogenic effects of PCN in vivo are likely mediated entirely via the PXR.

Steroid binding sites in liver membranes: interplay between glucocorticoids, sex steroids, and pituitary hormones

Steroid hormones activate target cells through specific receptors that discriminate among ligands based upon recognition of distinct structural features. For most known steroids, membrane and nuclear receptors co-exist in many target cells. However, while the structure of the nuclear receptors and their function as transcriptional activators of specific target genes is generally well understood, the identity of the membrane receptors remains elusive. Using pharmacological and biochemical approaches, we are beginning to characterize receptors for glucocorticoids and anabolic-androgenic steroids in male rat liver membranes. Male rat liver endoplasmic reticulum contains two steroid binding sites which are functionally related and associated with a 90-134 kDa oligomeric protein: (1) the low-affinity glucocorticoid binding site (LAGS), composed at least in part of two peptides (37 and 53 kDa) that bind glucocorticoids and (2) the stanozolol binding protein (STBP), composed at least in part of three peptides (22, 31, and 55 kDa) that bind the synthetic androgen stanozolol. These steroid binding proteins have many properties different from those of classical nuclear receptors, with the salient differences being a failure to recognize "classical" ligands for nuclear receptors together with marked differences in biochemical properties and physiological regulation. The mechanism of interaction of glucocorticoids with the LAGS can be clearly distinguished from that with STBP. Moreover, STBP shows an extremely narrow pharmacological profile, being selective for ST and its analog, danazol, among more than 100 steroids and non-steroidal compounds that were assayed, including those that are able to displace glucocorticoids from the LAGS. The level of LAGS activity undergoes dramatic variations following changes from the physiological serum levels of thyroid hormones, glucocorticoids, GH, vitamin A, and E2. However, neither thyroid hormones nor GH have a critical role on STBP activity. The STBP is functionally related to LAGS. We have suggested a novel mechanism for STBP whereby membrane-associated glucocorticoid binding activity is targeted by stanozolol (and 16beta-hydroxylated stanozolol): stanozolol modulates glucocorticoid activity in the liver through negative allosteric modulation of the LAGS resulting in an effective increase in classical GR-signaling by increasing glucocorticoid availability to the cytosolic GR.

Progesterone receptor membrane component 1: an integrative review

Progesterone receptor membrane component 1 (PGRMC1) contains a cytochrome b5 domain fold and belongs to the so-called membrane-associated progesterone receptor (MAPR) protein family that is widespread in eukaryotes. PGRMC1 and the related PGRMC2 mammalian family member diverged sometime after the evolution of segmented metazoan body plan and the appearance of vertebrates. Therefore PGRMC1 might be expected to be involved in some ancient eukaryotic processes, as well as more modern functions related to multicellularity and tissue interactions. Perhaps this explains the perplexing diversity of contexts where PGRMC1 has been observed, apparently being involved in different cellular processes at various sub-cellular locations. This review attempts to collate and interpret these observations. Ironically, despite being the archetypal member of the MAPR family, it has yet to be demonstrated that PGRMC1 exhibits specific progesterone binding. Potential roles of heme and steroid/sterol ligands are reviewed, as well as the implications of apparent target sequences within PGRMC1 for binding by SH2- and SH3-domain proteins as well as kinases. These motifs are modelled using the cytochrome b5 domain NMR structure of the Arabidopsis protein 1J03, implicating a possible function for PGRMC1 as an adaptor protein involved in regulating protein interactions and intracellular signal transduction and/or membrane trafficking. This interpretation is supported by the apparent presence of immunoreceptor tyrosine-based activation motif/ITAM sequences that are involved in endocytosis and vesicle targeting, and the colocalisation of PGRMC1 with caveolin and at the cytoplasmic membrane. Evidence for roles in disease, especially cancer, is also discussed.

Identification of a truncated ratp28-related protein expressed in kidney

An RT-PCR based strategy to clone the membrane-associated steroid binding protein ratp28 additionally amplified a novel sequence-related PCR product termed HC5. The HC5 PCR product was cloned and sequenced and showed 94% nucleotide sequence similarity to ratp28. The HC5 cDNA sequence open reading frame encodes a predicted 75 amino acid (8.0kDa) protein, and is therefore truncated compared to ratp28 (195 amino acids, 21.6kDa). In vitro transcription and translation of the HC5 cDNA resulted in the production of 2 proteins of approximately 8 and 6kDa. Restriction digests from various tissues demonstrated that liver and heart expressed primarily ratp28 mRNA whereas kidney and blood contained both ratp28 and HC5 transcripts. Phage display was employed to generate an antibody fragment to a peptide sequence conserved in ratp28 and HC5. Western blotting identified a 10kDa protein in cytosolic fractions of rat kidney. The function of HC5 remains to be determined.

Photoaffinity labeling identification of thyroid hormone-regulated glucocorticoid-binding peptides in rat liver endoplasmic reticulum: an oligomeric protein with high affinity for 16beta-hydroxylated stanozolol

Steroid-binding proteins unrelated to the classical nuclear receptors have been proposed to play a role in non-genomic actions of the17alpha-alkylated testosterone derivative (17alpha-AA) stanozolol (ST). We have previously reported that male rat liver endoplasmic reticulum contains two steroid-binding sites associated with high molecular mass oligomeric proteins: (1) the ST-binding protein (STBP); and (2) the low-affinity glucocorticoid-binding protein (LAGS). To further explore the role of LAGS on the mechanism of action of ST, we have now studied: (1) the interaction of ST and its hydroxylated metabolites with solubilized LAGS and the cytosolic glucocorticoid receptor (GR); and (2) the effects of hormones on the capability of STBP to bind ST. We found that, unlike 17alpha-methyltestosterone, neither ST nor its hydroxylated metabolites bind to GR. However, the 16beta-hydroxylation of ST significantly increases the capability of LAGS to bind ST. Interestingly, 3'-hydroxylation of ST abrogates the capability of LAGS to bind ST. ST (k(i)=30 nM) and 16beta-hydroxystanozolol (k(i)=13 nM) bind with high affinity to LAGS, and are capable of accelerating the rate of dissociation of previously bound dexamethasone from the LAGS. STBP and LAGS are strongly induced by ethinylestradiol. However, unlike STBP, LAGS is regulated by thyroid hormones and growth hormone, which proves that these steroid-binding activities are associated with different binding sites. These findings seem to suggest a novel mechanism for ST whereby membrane-associated glucocorticoid-binding activity is targeted by the 16beta-hydroxylated metabolite of ST. ST and its 16beta-hydroxylated metabolite modulate glucocorticoid activity in the liver through negative allosteric modulation of LAGS, with the result of this interaction an effective increase in classical GR-signaling by increasing glucocorticoid availability to the cytosolic GR.

Solubilization and photoaffinity labeling identification of glucocorticoid binding peptides in endoplasmic reticulum from rat liver

Steroid-binding proteins unrelated to the classical nuclear receptors have been proposed to play a role in non-genomic effects of steroid hormones. We have previously described that the low-affinity glucocorticoid binding protein (LAGS), present in the endoplasmic reticulum of the male rat liver, has pharmacological and biochemical properties different from those of nuclear receptors. The LAGS is under multihormonal regulation and binds glucocorticoids, progestins, and synthetic steroids but is unable to bind either estradiol, testosterone, or triamcinolone acetonide. In this study, we have solubilized the LAGS and investigated their pharmacological and hydrodynamic properties and their peptide composition. We found that LAGS is an integral protein bound to the endoplasmic reticulum. CHAPS provided its optimal solubilization without changes in its pharmacological properties. Hydrodynamic properties of LAGS showed that it has a molecular mass of at least 135 kDa. SDS-PAGE of covalently-labeled LAGS showed that [3H]dexamethasone binds two peptides of 53 and 37 kDa, respectively. Thus, the LAGS appears as an oligomeric protein under multihormonal regulation. The availability of solubilized LAGS and the fact that it can be induced in vivo represent major steps toward purification and understanding the functional significance of this unique steroid-binding protein.

Differential regulation of endobiotic-oxidizing cytochromes P450 in vitamin A-deficient male rat liver

1. The hepatic CYP4A-dependent omega-hydroxylation of arachidonic acid and CYP2C11-dependent 2alpha-/16alpha-hydroxylations of testosterone were decreased to 74 and 60% of respective control in microsomal fractions from vitamin A-deficient rats. Decreases in the rates of arachidonic acid omega-1-hydroxylation and testosterone 6beta-, 7alpha- and 17alpha-hydroxylations were less pronounced. 2. Corresponding decreases in microsomal CYP4A and CYP2C11 immunoreactive protein expression to 64 and 68% of respective control were observed in vitamin A-deficient rat liver. Expression of CYP3A proteins was unchanged from vitamin A-adequate control. 3. Northern analysis revealed a selective decrease in CYP4A2 mRNA expression in vitamin A-deficient rat liver to approximately 5% of control; expression of the related CYP4A1/4A3 mRNAs was not decreased. CYP2C11 mRNA expression was also decreased in vitamin A-deficient male rat liver to 39% of control levels. 4. Intake of the deficient diet containing all-trans-retinoic acid (ATRA) during the final week of the experiment restored CYP4A2 mRNA and CYP4A protein. Administration of exogenous androgen or episodic growth hormone was ineffective. In contrast, CYP2C11 expression was restored by ATRA and androgen, but not by growth hormone. 5. From these studies it emerges that CYP4A2, a fatty acid omega-hydroxylase in rat liver, is highly dependent on vitamin A for optimal expression, whereas CYP2C11 is indirectly down regulated by androgen deficiency resulting from vitamin A-deficiency. Altered CYP expression in vitamin A-deficiency provides insights into the relationship between dietary constituents and the intracellular formation of vasoactive eicosanoids as well as the clearance of androgenic steroids.

Selective induction of cytochrome P450 3A1 by dexamethasone in cultured rat hepatocytes: analysis with a novel reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction assay section sign

The study of drug metabolism in cultured rat hepatocytes is hampered by the rapid loss of the expression of cytochrome P450 enzymes. Nevertheless, the activity of cytochrome P450 3A (CYP3A), one of the most important isoenzymes for drug metabolism, can be elevated by chemical inducers. In the present study, we investigated in cultured rat hepatocytes the induction of all four currently identified CYP3A isoforms by dexamethasone, and compared the results obtained in vitro with the induction profile of dexamethasone in vivo. To this end, CYP3A mRNA levels were quantified with a novel, radioactive reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) assay, and CYP3A enzymatic activity was measured by a testosterone hydroxylation assay. In the RT-PCR assay, CYP3A isoforms were co-amplified with glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH) in the presence of radioactively labeled nucleotides. This resulted in an extremely sensitive and accurate determination of CYP3A expression levels, relative to those of GAPDH. Using this RT-PCR assay, it was found that the expression of all CYP3A isoforms in rat hepatocytes, cultured on a collagen matrix, was decreased by 80-90% within one day of cultivation. After addition of dexamethasone, at one day after isolation, CYP3A1 mRNA levels were elevated to levels comparable to those in freshly isolated hepatocytes within two days. In contrast, CYP3A2, CYP3A9, and CYP3A18 mRNA levels were not affected by dexamethasone treatment, and were hardly detectable after three days of cultivation. CYP3A enzymatic activity was also induced in cultured hepatocytes (approximately 6-fold) after addition of dexamethasone. In vivo, CYP3A1 mRNA levels increased 45-fold after dexamethasone administration. However, in contrast to the situation in cultured hepatocytes, CYP3A2 and CYP3A18 were also induced, albeit to a lesser extent (4- and 7-fold elevated mRNA levels, respectively). We conclude that the selective induction of CYP3A1 in dexamethasone-treated rat hepatocytes allows the study of biotransformation reactions by CYP3A1, without interference by any of the other CYP3A isoenzymes.