Molecular characterization of the glucose-sensing mechanism in the clonal insulin-secreting BRIN-BD11 cell line

Characterization of insulin crystalline form in isolated β-cell secretory granules

Insulin is stored in vivo inside the pancreatic β-cell insulin secretory granules. In vitro studies have led to an assumption that high insulin and Zn²⁺ concentrations inside the pancreatic β-cell insulin secretory granules should promote insulin crystalline state in the form of Zn²⁺-stabilized hexamers. Electron microscopic images of thin sections of the pancreatic β-cells often show a dense, regular pattern core, suggesting the presence of insulin crystals. However, the structural features of the storage forms of insulin in native preparations of secretory granules are unknown, because of their small size, fragile character and difficult handling. We isolated and investigated the secretory granules from MIN6 cells under near-native conditions, using cryo-electron microscopic (Cryo-EM) techniques. The analysis of these data from multiple intra-granular crystals revealed two different rhomboidal crystal lattices. The minor lattice has unit cell parameters (a ≃ b ≃ 84.0 Å, c ≃ 35.2 Å), similar to in vitro crystallized human 4Zn²⁺-insulin hexamer, whereas the largely prevalent unit cell has more than double c-axis (a ≃ b ≃ c ≃ 96.5 Å) that probably corresponds to two or three insulin hexamers in the asymmetric unit. Our experimental data show that insulin can be present in pancreatic MIN6 cell granules in a microcrystalline form, probably consisting of 4Zn²⁺-hexamers of this hormone.

The efficiency of insulin production and its content in insulin-expressing model β-cells correlate with their Zn2+ levels

Insulin is produced and stored inside the pancreatic β-cell secretory granules, where it is assumed to form Zn2+-stabilized oligomers. However, the actual storage forms of this hormone and the impact of zinc ions on insulin production in vivo are not known. Our initial X-ray fluorescence experiment on granules from native Langerhans islets and insulinoma-derived INS-1E cells revealed a considerable difference in the zinc content. This led our further investigation to evaluate the impact of the intra-granular Zn2+ levels on the production and storage of insulin in different model β-cells. Here, we systematically compared zinc and insulin contents in the permanent INS-1E and BRIN-BD11 β-cells and in the native rat pancreatic islets by flow cytometry, confocal microscopy, immunoblotting, specific messenger RNA (mRNA) and total insulin analysis. These studies revealed an impaired insulin production in the permanent β-cell lines with the diminished intracellular zinc content. The drop in insulin and Zn2+ levels was paralleled by a lower expression of ZnT8 zinc transporter mRNA and hampered proinsulin processing/folding in both permanent cell lines. To summarize, we showed that the disruption of zinc homeostasis in the model β-cells correlated with their impaired insulin and ZnT8 production. This indicates a need for in-depth fundamental research about the role of zinc in insulin production and storage.

Physiological regulation of the pancreatic β-cell: functional insights for understanding and therapy of diabetes

Knowledge about the sites and actions of the numerous physiological and pharmacological factors affecting insulin secretion and pancreatic beta-cell function has been derived from the use of bioengineered insulin-producing cell lines. Application of an innovative electrofusion approach has generated novel glucose-responsive insulin-secreting cells for pharmaceutical and experimental research, including popular BRIN-BD11 beta-cells. This review gives an overview of the establishment and core characteristics of clonal electrofusion-derived BRIN-BD11 beta-cells. As discussed, BRIN-BD11 cells have facilitated studies aimed at dissecting important pathways by which nutrients and other bioactive molecules regulate the complex mechanisms regulating insulin secretion, and highlight the future potential of novel and diverse bioengineering approaches to provide a cell-based insulin-replacement therapy for diabetes. Clonal BRIN-BD11 beta-cells have been instrumental in: (a) characterization of K(ATP) channel-dependent and -independent actions of nutrients and established and emerging insulinotropic antidiabetic drugs, and the understanding of drug-induced beta-cell desensitization; (b) tracing novel metabolic and beta-cell secretory pathways, including use of state-of-the-art NMR approaches to provide new insights into the relationships between glucose and amino acid handling and insulin secretion; and (c) determination of the chronic detrimental actions of nutrients and the diabetic environment on pancreatic beta-cells, including the recent discovery that homocysteine, a risk factor for metabolic syndrome, may play a role in the progressive demise of insulin secretion and pancreatic beta-cell function in diabetes. Collectively, the studies discussed in this review highlight the importance of innovative experimental beta-cell physiology in the discovery and characterization of new and improved drugs and therapeutic strategies to help tackle the emerging diabetes epidemic.

Time-correlation between membrane depolarization and intracellular calcium in insulin secreting BRIN-BD11 cells: studies using FLIPR

Cytoplasmic Ca(2+) ([Ca(2+)](i)) and membrane potential changes were measured in clonal pancreatic beta cells using a fluorimetric imaging plate reader (FLIPR). KCl (30 mM) produced a fast membrane depolarization immediately followed by increase of [Ca(2+)](i) in BRIN-BD11 cells. l-Alanine (10 mM) but not l-arginine (10 mM) mimicked the KCl profile and also produced a fast membrane depolarization and elevation of [Ca(2+)](i). Conversely, a rise in glucose from 5.6 mM to 11.1 or 16.7 mM induced rapid membrane depolarization, followed by a slower and delayed increase of [Ca(2+)](i). GLP-1 (20 nM) did not affect membrane potential or [Ca(2+)](i). In contrast, acetylcholine (ACh, 100 microM) induced fast membrane depolarization immediately followed by a modest [Ca(2+)](i) increase. When extracellular Ca(2+) was buffered with EGTA, ACh mobilized intracellular calcium stores and the [Ca(2+)](i) increase was reduced by 2-aminoethoxydiphenyl borate but not by dantrolene, indicating the involvement of inositol triphosphate receptors (InsP(3)R). It is concluded that membrane depolarization of beta cells by glucose stimulation is not immediately followed by elevation of [Ca(2+)](i) and other metabolic events are involved in glucose induced stimulus-secretion coupling. It is also suggested that ACh mobilizes intracellular Ca(2+) through store operated InsP(3)R.

Glucose sensitivity and metabolism-secretion coupling studied during two-year continuous culture in INS-1E insulinoma cells

Rat insulinoma-derived INS-1 cells constitute a widely used beta-cell surrogate. However, due to their nonclonal nature, INS-1 cells are heterogeneous and are not stable over extended culture periods. We have isolated clonal INS-1E cells from parental INS-1 based on both their insulin content and their secretory responses to glucose. Here we describe the stable differentiated INS-1E beta-cell phenotype over 116 passages (no. 27-142) representing a 2.2-yr continuous follow-up. INS-1E cells can be safely cultured and used within passages 40-100 with average insulin contents of 2.30 +/- 0.11 microg/million cells. Glucose-induced insulin secretion was dose-related and similar to rat islet responses. Secretion saturated with a 6.2-fold increase at 15 mm glucose, showing a 50% effective concentration of 10.4 mm. Secretory responses to amino acids and sulfonylurea were similar to those of islets. Moreover, INS-1E cells retained the amplifying pathway, as judged by glucose-evoked augmentation of insulin release in a depolarized state. Regarding metabolic parameters, INS-1E cells exhibited glucose dose-dependent elevations of NAD(P)H, cytosolic Ca(2+), and mitochondrial Ca(2+) levels. In contrast, mitochondrial membrane potential, ATP levels, and cell membrane potential were all fully activated by 7.5 mm glucose. Using the perforated patch clamp technique, 7.5 and 15 mm glucose elicited electrical activity to a similar degree. A K(ATP) current was identified in whole cell voltage clamp using diazoxide and tolbutamide. As in native beta-cells, tolbutamide induced electrical activity, indicating that the K(ATP)conductance is important in setting the resting potential. Therefore, INS-1E cells represent a stable and valuable beta-cell model.

Specific desensitization of sulfonylurea- but not imidazoline-induced insulin release after prolonged tolbutamide exposure

Functional effects of prolonged exposure to the sulfonylurea, tolbutamide, were examined in the clonal electrofusion-derived BRIN-BD11 cell line. In acute 20-min incubations, 50-400 microM tolbutamide stimulated a dose-dependent increase (P < 0.01) in insulin release at both non-stimulatory (1.1 mM) and stimulatory (8.4 mM) glucose. Culture with 100 microM tolbutamide (18 hr) caused a marked (67%) decrease in subsequent insulin-secretory responsiveness to acute challenge with 200 microM tolbutamide, though notably, tolbutamide culture exerted no influence on 200 microM efaroxan-induced insulin secretion. Duration of exposure (3-18 hr) to 100 microM tolbutamide in culture also time-dependently influenced subsequent responsiveness to acute tolbutamide challenge, with progressive 47-58% decreases from 6-18 hr (P < 0.001). Similarly, 6- to 18-hr culture with 100 microM efaroxan specifically desensitized efaroxan-induced insulin release. Tolbutamide- and efaroxan-induced desensitization exhibited a time-dependent reversibility, with a sustained return to full insulin-secretory responsiveness by 12 hr. Notably, 18-hr culture with tolbutamide or efaroxan did not significantly affect insulinotropic responses to 16.7 mM glucose, 10 mM 2-ketoisocaproic acid, 10 mM alanine, 10 mM arginine, or 30 mM KCl. Diverse inhibitory actions of tolbutamide or efaroxan culture on late events in stimulus-secretion coupling reveal that drug desensitization is both a specific and important phenomenon. As such, the model system described could prove an important tool in determining the complex modes of action of established and novel clinically useful insulinotropic compounds.

Induced desensitization of the insulinotropic effects of antidiabetic drugs, BTS 67 582 and tolbutamide

Acute and chronic mechanisms of action of novel insulinotropic antidiabetic drug, BTS 67 582 (1, 1-dimethyl-2-(2-morpholinophenyl)guanidine fumarate), were examined in the stable cultured BRIN-BD11 cell line. BTS 67 582 (100 - 400 microM) stimulated a concentration-dependent increase (P<0.01) in insulin release at both non-stimulatory (1.1 mM) and stimulatory (8. 4 mM) glucose. Long-term exposure (3 - 18 h) to 100 microM BTS 67 582 in culture time-dependently decreased subsequent responsiveness to acute challenge with 200 microM BTS 67 582 or 200 microM tolbutamide at 12 - 18 h (P<0.001). Similarly 3 - 18 h culture with the sulphonylurea, tolbutamide (100 microM), also effectively suppressed subsequent insulinotropic responses to both BTS 67 582 and tolbutamide. Culture with 100 microM BTS 67 582 or 100 microM tolbutamide did not affect basal insulin secretion, cellular insulin content, or cell viability and exerted no influence on the secretory responsiveness to 200 microM of the imidazoline, efaroxan. While 18 h BTS 67 582 culture did not affect the insulin-releasing actions (P<0.001) of 16.7 mM glucose, 10 mM arginine, 30 mM KCl, 25 microM forskolin or 10 nM phorbol-12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), significant inhibition (P<0.001) of the insulinotropic effects of 10 mM 2-ketoisocaproic acid (KIC) and 10 mM alanine were observed. These data suggest that BTS 67 582 shares a common signalling pathway to sulphonylurea but not imidazoline drugs. Desensitization of drug action may provide an important approach to dissect sites of action of novel and established insulinotropic antidiabetic agents.

Drug-induced desensitization of insulinotropic actions of sulfonylureas

K(ATP)-channel-dependent and K(ATP)-channel-independent insulin-releasing actions of the sulfonylurea, tolbutamide, were examined in the clonal BRIN-BD11 cell line. Tolbutamide stimulated insulin release at both nonstimulatory (1.1 mM) and stimulatory (16. 7 mM) glucose. Under depolarizing conditions (16.7 mM glucose plus 30 mM KCl) tolbutamide evoked a stepwise K(ATP) channel-independent insulinotropic response. Culture (18 h) with tolbutamide or the guanidine derivative BTS 67 582 (100 microM) markedly reduced (P < 0. 001) subsequent responsiveness to acute challenge with tolbutamide, glibenclamide, and BTS 67 582 but not the imidazoline drug, efaroxan. Conversely, 18 h culture with efaroxan reduced (P < 0.001) subsequent insulinotropic effects of efaroxan but not that of tolbutamide, glibenclamide, or BTS 67 582. Culture (18 h) with tolbutamide reduced the K(ATP) channel-independent actions of both tolbutamide and glibenclamide. Whereas culture with efaroxan exerted no effect on the K(ATP) channel-independent actions of sulfonylureas, BTS 67 582 abolished the response of tolbutamide and inhibited that of glibenclamide. These data demonstrate that prolonged exposure to tolbutamide desensitizes both K(ATP)-channel-dependent and -independent insulin-secretory actions of sulfonylureas, indicating synergistic pathways mediated by common sulfonylurea binding site(s).

Metabolic and K(ATP) channel-independent actions of keto acid initiators of insulin secretion

Insulin-releasing effects of 2-ketobutyric acid (KB), 2-ketoisocaproic acid (KIC), 2-keto-3-methylvaleric acid (KMV), and 3-phenylpyruvic acid (PP) were examined by using clonal beta cells. Whereas KIC, KMV, and PP dose-dependently initiated insulin secretion and potentiated the effects of 4.2-16.7 mM glucose, equimolar KB was without effect. Transport inhibition by using 10 mM valine, isoleucine, 2-cyano-3 hydroxycinnamate or 2-cyano-4 hydroxycinnamate, or metabolic inhibition by 15 mM mannoheptulose, 5 mM sodium azide, 5 mM sodium cyanide, or removal of HCO3 reduced the secretory effects of KIC, KMV, and PP. Whereas K+ depletion reduced keto acid-induced insulin output, depolarizing concentrations of L-leucine and L-arginine potentiated the keto acid-induced effects. Under depolarizing conditions (25 mM KCI and 16.7 mM glucose), 10 mM KIC, KMV, or PP induced insulin secretion, suggesting K(ATP) channel-independent actions. Furthermore, the K(ATP) channel opener diazoxide reduced, but did not abolish, the keto acid-induced effects. However, voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel blockade with verapamil or removal of extracellular Ca2+ abolished keto acid-induced insulin release. Collectively, these results indicate that KIC, KMV, and PP initiate insulin secretion at least partially independently of K(ATP) channel activity, through both mitochondrial metabolism and regulation of Ca2+ influx.

Modulation of glucose-induced insulin secretion by cytosolic redox state in clonal beta-cells

Nutrient stimulation of pancreatic beta-cells increases the cellular reduced pyridine nucleotide content, but the specific role of cytosolic redox state in glucose-induced insulin release (GIIR) remains undetermined. The role of cytosolic redox state has been assessed (as reflected by the lactate/pyruvate ratio) in nutrient- and non-nutrient-induced insulin release using a recently established glucose-sensitive clonal beta-cell line (BRIN-BD11). Long-term exposure to the NAD+ precursor vitamin nicotinic acid (NA, 100 microM) was used to promote a more oxidized state in the cytosol. Glucose (2-16 mM) evoked a dose-dependent rise in the cytosolic NADH/NAD+ ratio which was linearly related to the extent of GIIR. NA suppressed the glucose-induced rise in the NADH/NAD+ ratio and concomitantly reduced GIIR by 44%. It also inhibited, by 47%, the average glucose-induced rise in cytosolic free Ca2+ concentration ([Ca2+]i, assessed by fura-2 microfluorometry from single cells). The latter effect was not accounted for by a reduction in the activity of voltage-sensitive Ca2+ channels, inasmuch as both high K+- and tolbutamide-induced [Ca2+]i rises remained insensitive to NA exposure. NA did not affect insulin release evoked by any of the depolarizing agents, indicating that steps in the stimulus-secretion coupling cascade distal to Ca2+ influx are insensitive to changes in the cytosolic redox state. It is concluded that GIIR is partially controlled by the cytosolic redox state. Moreover, the impairment in GIIR, caused by a shift toward a more oxidized state in the cytosol, originates from an attenuated [Ca2+]i response. The latter is likely mediated by the influence of cytosolic redox state on specific metabolic pathways (NADH shuttle systems and/or the malonyl-CoA pathway), leading ultimately to enhancement of the activity of ATP-sensitive K+ channels.

Glucose and non-glucidic nutrients exert permissive effects on 2-keto acid regulation of pancreatic beta-cell function

Insulin-releasing effects of straight and branched chain 2-keto acids were assessed using clonal glucose-responsive beta-cells. Pyruvic acid (PA), 2-ketovaleric acid (KV), 2-ketoisovaleric acid (KIV) or 2-keto-3-methylvaleric acid (KMV) dose-dependently promoted the stimulatory effects of D-glucose, whereas 2-ketobutyric acid (KB) did not affect insulin release. The stimulatory 2-keto acids also promoted the stimulatory activity of D-glyceraldehyde, L-leucine or L-arginine. Responses to PA, KV, KIV or KMV were significantly reduced by transport inhibition with 2-cyano-3 hydroxycinnamate, glucokinase inhibition with mannoheptulose or metabolic inhibition with sodium azide or sodium cyanide. Membrane hyperpolarisation with K+ depletion or diazoxide reduced insulin output, but failed to abolish secretory responses to KV, KIV and KMV. Secretory effects of these 2-keto acids also persisted in beta-cells depolarised with high KCl and glucose. Voltage-dependent Ca2+ channel blockade, with verapamil, or depletion of extracellular Ca2+ abolished the secretory activity of 2-keto acids. Collectively, these results indicate that glucose and metabolisable nutrients exert permissive effects on 2-keto acid-induced insulin release. In addition, KV, KIV and KMV can regulate beta-cell function at least partially independently of K+-ATP channel activity, both through their mitochondrial metabolism and regulation of Ca2+ influx.

Na+ cotransport by metabolizable and nonmetabolizable amino acids stimulates a glucose-regulated insulin-secretory response

The involvement of Na+ in insulin-secretory responses to metabolizable and nonmetabolizable amino acids known to be cotransported with Na+, were examined using islet-derived BRIN-BD11 cells. At stimulatory (16.7 mM) glucose, 10 mM of l-alanine, alpha-aminoisobutyric acid (AIB) or l-proline stimulated 1.3- to 10. 4-fold (p < 0.01) insulin-secretory responses. In each case, these effects were significantly greater than those observed at nonstimulatory (1.1 mM) glucose (p < 0.01). While, tetrodotoxin blockade of voltage-dependent Na+ channels exerted no significant effect on insulin release, Na/K pump blockade with ouabain significantly promoted the amino acid-induced effects (p < 0.05). Replacement of extracellular Na+ with equimolar N-methyl-d-glucamine+ and omission of extracellular K+ or Ca2+ were all effective in removing the actions of each amino acid, confirming the critical role of ionic fluxes in the secretory responses to these amino acids. Collectively these results demonstrate that metabolizable and nonmetabolizable amino acids can induce glucose-dependent insulin-secretory responses by modulating electrogenic Na+ transport.