Differential assembly kinetics of alpha-tubulin isoforms in the presence of paclitaxel

The Roles of β-Tubulin Mutations and Isotype Expression in Acquired Drug Resistance

The antitumor drug paclitaxel stabilizes microtubules and reduces their dynamicity, promoting mitotic arrest and eventually apoptosis. Upon assembly of the α/β-tubulin heterodimer, GTP becomes bound to both the α and β-tubulin monomers. During microtubule assembly, the GTP bound to β-tubulin is hydrolyzed to GDP, eventually reaching steady-state equilibrium between free tubulin dimers and those polymerized into microtubules. Tubulin-binding drugs such as paclitaxel interact with β-tubulin, resulting in the disruption of this equilibrium. In spite of several crystal structures of tubulin, there is little biochemical insight into the mechanism by which anti-tubulin drugs target microtubules and alter their normal behavior. The mechanism of drug action is further complicated, as the description of altered β-tubulin isotype expression and/or mutations in tubulin genes may lead to drug resistance as has been described in the literature. Because of the relationship between β-tubulin isotype expression and mutations within β-tubulin, both leading to resistance, we examined the properties of altered residues within the taxane, colchicine and Vinca binding sites. The amount of data now available, allows us to investigate common patterns that lead to microtubule disruption and may provide a guide to the rational design of novel compounds that can inhibit microtubule dynamics for specific tubulin isotypes or, indeed resistant cell lines. Because of the vast amount of data published to date, we will only provide a broad overview of the mutational results and how these correlate with differences between tubulin isotypes. We also note that clinical studies describe a number of predictive factors for the response to anti-tubulin drugs and attempt to develop an understanding of the features within tubulin that may help explain how they may affect both microtubule assembly and stability.

Tubulin perturbation leads to unexpected cell wall modifications and affects stomatal behaviour in Populus

Cortical microtubules are integral to plant morphogenesis, cell wall synthesis, and stomatal behaviour, presumably by governing cellulose microfibril orientation. Genetic manipulation of tubulins often leads to abnormal plant development, making it difficult to probe additional roles of cortical microtubules in cell wall biogenesis. Here, it is shown that expressing post-translational C-terminal modification mimics of α-tubulin altered cell wall characteristics and guard cell dynamics in transgenic Populus tremula x alba that otherwise appear normal. 35S promoter-driven transgene expression was high in leaves but unusually low in xylem, suggesting high levels of tubulin transgene expression were not tolerated in wood-forming tissues during regeneration of transformants. Cellulose, hemicellulose, and lignin contents were unaffected in transgenic wood, but expression of cell wall-modifying enzymes, and extractability of lignin-bound pectin and xylan polysaccharides were increased in developing xylem. The results suggest that pectin and xylan polysaccharides deposited early during cell wall biogenesis are more sensitive to subtle tubulin perturbation than cellulose and matrix polysaccharides deposited later. Tubulin perturbation also affected guard cell behaviour, delaying drought-induced stomatal closure as well as light-induced stomatal opening in leaves. Pectins have been shown to confer cell wall flexibility critical for reversible stomatal movement, and results presented here are consistent with microtubule involvement in this process. Taken together, the data show the value of growth-compatible tubulin perturbations for discerning microtubule functions, and add to the growing body of evidence for microtubule involvement in non-cellulosic polysaccharide assembly during cell wall biogenesis.

Free energy calculations on the binding of colchicine and its derivatives with the alpha/beta-tubulin isoforms

Tubulin is the target for numerous small molecule ligands which alter microtubule dynamics leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many of these ligands are currently used clinically for the treatment of several types of cancer, and they bind to one of three distinct binding sites within beta-tubulin (paclitaxel, vinca, and colchicine), all of which have been identified crystallographically. Unfortunately, serious side effects always accompany chemotherapy since these drugs bind to tubulin indiscriminately, leading to the death of both cancerous and healthy cells. However, the existence and distribution of divergent tubulin isoforms provide a platform upon which we may build novel chemotherapeutic drugs that can differentiate between different cell types and therefore reduce undesirable side effects. We report results of computational analysis that aims at predicting differences between the binding energies of a family of colchicine derivatives against 10 human alpha/beta-tubulin isoforms. Free energy perturbation method has been used in our calculations and the results provide a proof of principle by indicating significant differences both among the derivatives and between tubulin isoforms.

Localization of betav tubulin in the cochlea and cultured cells with a novel monoclonal antibody

Tubulin, the dimeric structural protein of microtubules, is a heterodimer of alpha and beta subunits; both alpha and beta exist as numerous isotypes encoded by different genes. In vertebrates the sequence differences among the beta(I), beta(II), beta(III), beta(IV) and beta(V) isotypes are highly conserved in evolution, implying that the isotypes may have functional significance. Isotype-specific monoclonal antibodies have been useful in determining the cellular and sub-cellular distributions and possible functions of the beta(I), beta(II), beta(III), and beta(IV) isotypes; however, little is known about the beta(V) isotype. We here report the creation and purification of a monoclonal antibody (SHM.12G11) specific for beta(V). The antibody was designed to be specific for the C-terminal sequence EEEINE, which is unique to rodent and chicken beta(V). The antibody was found to bind specifically to the C-terminal peptide EEEINE, and does not cross-react with the carboxy-termini of either alpha-tubulin or the other beta-tubulin isotypes. However, the antibody also binds to the peptide EEEVNE, but not to the peptide EEEIDG, corresponding respectively to the C-terminal peptides of bovine and human beta(V). Immunofluorescence analysis indicates that beta(V) is found in microtubules of both the interphase network and the mitotic spindle. In gerbils, beta(V) also occurs in the cochlea where it is found largely in the specialized cells that are unique in containing bundled microtubules with 15 protofilaments.

Treatment of hormone-refractory breast cancer: apoptosis and regression of human tumors implanted in mice

Following surgery, the hormone dependence of breast tumors is exploited for therapy using antagonists such as tamoxifen, although occasional hormone-resistant clones do appear. Another chemotherapeutic strategy uses microtubule inhibitors such as taxanes. Unfortunately, these agents elicit toxicities such as leukocytopenia, diarrhea, alopecia, and peripheral neuropathies and are also associated with the emergence of drug resistance. We have previously described a tubulin-binding, natural compound, noscapine, that was nontoxic and triggered apoptosis in many cancer types albeit at 10 mumol/L or higher concentrations depending on the cell type. We now show that a synthetic analogue of noscapine, 9-bromonoscapine, is approximately 10-fold to 15-fold more potent than noscapine in inhibiting cell proliferation and induces apoptosis following G2-M arrest in hormone-insensitive human breast cancers (MDA-MB-231). Furthermore, a clear loss of mitochondrial membrane potential, release of cytochrome c, activation of the terminal caspase-3, and the cleavage of its substrates such as poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase, suggest an intrinsic apoptotic mechanism. Taken together, these data point to a mitochondrially mediated apoptosis of hormone-insensitive breast cancer cells. Human tumor xenografts in nude mice showed significant tumor volume reduction and a surprising increase in longevity without signs of obvious toxicity. Thus, our data provide compelling evidence that 9-bromonoscapine can be useful for the therapy of hormone-refractory breast cancer.

Comparative modelling of human β tubulin isotypes and implications for drug binding

The protein tubulin is a target for several anti-mitotic drugs, which affect microtubule dynamics, ultimately leading to cell cycle arrest and apoptosis. Many of these drugs, including the taxanes and Vinca alkaloids, are currently used clinically in the treatment of several types of cancer. Another tubulin binding drug, colchicine, although too toxic to be used as a chemotherapeutic agent, is commonly used for the treatment of gout. The main disadvantage that all of these drugs share is that they bind tubulin indiscriminately, leading to the death of both cancerous and healthy cells. However, the broad cellular distribution of several tubulin isotypes provides a platform upon which to construct novel chemotherapeutic drugs that could differentiate between different cell types, reducing the undesirable side effects associated with current chemotherapeutic treatments. Here, we report an analysis of ten human β tubulin isotypes and discuss differences within each of the previously characterized paclitaxel, colchicine and vinblastine binding sites.

Mechanisms of Taxol resistance related to microtubules

Since its approval by the FDA in 1992 for the treatment of ovarian cancer, the use of Taxol has dramatically increased. Although treatment with Taxol has led to improvement in the duration and quality of life for some cancer patients, the majority eventually develop progressive disease after initially responding to Taxol treatment. Drug resistance represents a major obstacle to improving the overall response and survival of cancer patients. This review focuses on mechanisms of Taxol resistance that occur directly at the microtubule, such as mutations, tubulin isotype selection and post-translational modifications, and also at the level of regulatory proteins. A review of tubulin structure, microtubule dynamics, the mechanism of action of Taxol and its binding site on the microtubule are included, so that the reader can evaluate Taxol resistance in context.

Coordination of posttranslational modifications of bovine brain alpha-tubulin. Polyglycylation of delta2 tubulin

Microtubules participate in a large number of intracellular events including cell division, intracellular transport and secretion, axonal transport, and maintenance of cell morphology. They are composed of tubulin, a heterodimeric protein, consisting of two similar polypeptides alpha and beta. In mammalian cells, both alpha- and beta-tubulin occur as seven to eight different genetic variants, which also undergo numerous posttranslational modifications that include tyrosination-detyrosination and deglutamylation, phosphorylation, acetylation, polyglutamylation, and polyglycylation. Tyrosination-detyrosination is one of the major posttranslational modifications in which the C-terminal tyrosine residue in alpha-tubulin is added or removed reversibly. Although this modification does not alter the assembly activity of tubulin in vitro, these two forms of tubulin have been found to be distributed differently in vivo and are also correlated with microtubule stability (Gunderson, G. G., Kalnoski, M. H., and Bulinski, J. C. (1984) Cell 38, 779-789). Thus, the question arises as to whether these two forms of tubulin differ in any other modifications. In an effort to answer this question, the tyrosinated and the nontyrosinated forms of the alpha1/2 isoform have been purified from brain tubulin by immunoaffinity chromatography. matrix-assisted laser desorption/ionization-time of flight mass spectrometric analysis of the C-terminal peptide revealed that the tyrosinated form is polyglutamylated with one to four Glu residues, while the Delta2 tubulin is polyglycylated with one to three Gly residues. These results indicate that posttranslational modifications of tubulin are correlated with each other and that polyglutamylation and polyglycylation of tubulin may have important roles in regulating microtubule assembly, stability, and function in vivo.

Increased levels of tyrosinated alpha-, beta(III)-, and beta(IV)-tubulin isotypes in paclitaxel-resistant MCF-7 breast cancer cells

Paclitaxel (PTX), the diterpene alkaloid, is a potent anti-cancer drug and is routinely used for the treatment of breast and ovarian cancers. The cellular targets of PTX are microtubules, which are composed of alpha- and beta-tubulin. Development of PTX resistance in patients has been a major problem associated with cancer chemotherapy. In an effort to get insight into this phenomenon of drug resistance, a PTX-resistant cell line from MCF-7 breast cancer cells has been generated. Western analysis of the cell extracts revealed that the resistant cells contain 2-fold higher amount of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin than those of the wild-type MCF-7 cells. Similar analyses of beta-tubulin with the isotype-specific monoclonal antibodies demonstrated that the PTX-resistant cells contain 2.5-fold higher amounts of beta(III) and 1.5-fold higher amount of beta(IV)-tubulin, while no difference was observed in the level of beta(I) isotype. These results demonstrate for the first time that PTX resistance is associated with an increase in the level of tyrosinated alpha-tubulin.