Mouse homolog of Saccharomyces cerevisiae spo11 is induced in normal mu(+)B-cells by stimuli that cause germline C(H) transcription and subsequent class switch recombination

Chromatin remodeling finds its place in the DNA double-strand break response

The accurate repair of chromosomal double-strand breaks (DSBs) arising from exposure to exogenous agents, such as ionizing radiation (IR) and radiomimetic drugs is crucial in maintaining genomic integrity, cellular viability and the prevention of tumorigenesis. Eukaryotic cells have evolved efficient mechanisms that sense and respond to DSBs. The DNA DSB response is facilitated by hierarchical signaling networks that orchestrate chromatin structural changes, cell-cycle checkpoints and multiple enzymatic activities to repair the broken DNA ends. Sensors and transducers signal to numerous downstream cellular effectors which function primarily by substrate posttranslational modifications including phosphorylation, acetylation, methylation and ubiquitylation. In particular, the past several years have provided important insight into the role of chromatin remodeling and histones-specific modifications to control DNA damage detection, signaling and repair. This review summarizes recently identified factors that influence this complex process and the repair of DNA DSBs in eukaryotic cells.

The cellular control of DNA double-strand breaks

DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) are the most hazardous lesions arising in the genome of eukaryotic organisms, and yet occur normally during DNA replication, meiosis, and immune system development. The efficient repair of DSBs is crucial in maintaining genomic integrity, cellular viability, and the prevention of tumorigenesis. As a consequence, eukaryotic cells have evolved efficient mechanisms that sense and respond to DSBs and ultimately repair the break. The swiftness of the DNA DSB response has paved to the identification of sensors and transducers which allowed to generate a hierarchical signaling paradigm depicting the transduction of the damage signal to numerous downstream effectors (Fig. 1). The function of such effectors involve posttranslational modifications through phosphorylation, acetylation, and methylation of the substrates. This review will address the control of DSBs in damaged eukaryotic cells, the physiological processes that require the introduction of a DSB into the genome, and the maintenance of DSBs in non-damaged cells.

The role of the DNA double-strand break response network in meiosis

Organisms with sexual reproduction have two homologous copies of each chromosome. Meiosis is characterized by two successive cell divisions that result in four haploid sperms or eggs, each carrying a single copy of homologous chromosome. This process requires a coordinated reorganization of chromatin and a complex network of meiotic-specific signaling cascades. At the beginning of meiosis, each chromosome must recognize its homolog, then the two become intimately aligned along their entire lengths which allows the exchange of DNA strands between homologous sequences to generate genetic diversity. DNA double-strand breaks (DSBs) initiate meiotic recombination in a variety of organisms. Numerous studies have identified both the genomic loci of the initiating DSBs and the proteins involved in their formation. This review will summarize the activation and signaling networks required for the DSB response in meiosis.

Mice deficient for the type II topoisomerase-like DNA transesterase Spo11 show normal immunoglobulin somatic hypermutation and class switching

Somatic hypermutation in B cells undergoing T cell dependent immune responses generates high affinity antibodies that provide protective immunity. B cells also switch from the expression of immunoglobulin (Ig) M and IgD to that of other Ig classes through somatic DNA recombination. Recent work has implicated DNA strand breaks, possibly DNA double strand breaks (DSB), as the initiating lesions in both class switch recombination and hypermutation, although the etiology of these lesions is not understood. Spo11, a protein structurally related to archaeal type II topoisomerases, generates DSB that initiate meiotic recombination. This characteristic, together with its expression pattern, marks this enzyme as a potential candidate for the initiation of hypermutation, and perhaps also for Ig class switching. To investigate whether Spo11 is involved in these processes, we studied the T cell dependent immune response of Spo11-deficient (Spo11(-/-)) mice against the hapten nitrophenyl (NP). We found that V186.2-bearing IgG1 transcripts had normal levels and patterns of somatic hypermutation. Furthermore, Spo11(-/-) mice showed normal serum levels of all Ig isotypes. These results indicate that Spo11 is not required for Ig hypermutation or class switch recombination.

Class switch recombination signals induce lymphocyte-derived Spo11 expression and Spo11 antisense oligonucleotide inhibits class switching

Recently, we showed that mouse Spo11 is induced in normal mu(+) B cells by class switch recombination (CSR) stimuli, by RT-PCR using primers based on the reported cDNA sequence of testis-derived Spo11 (test-Spo11) cDNA. In the present study, we first determined the cDNA sequence of lymphocyte-derived Spo11 (lym-Spo11). The 5' upstream portion had an as yet unreported sequence but the remaining part from exons 2 to 12 and the subsequent 3'UTR was completely identical to that of test-Spo11. RT-PCR analysis indicated that lymphocytes express lym-Spo11 but not test-Spo11. Second, we showed that lym-Spo11 is strongly induced (above eightfold) in the IgA CSR system of LPS-stimulated mu(+)B cells in the presence of all-trans retinoic acid and IL-4. Finally, we examined whether lym-Spo11 antisense S-oligonucleotide (AS) can inhibit CSR reactions in three in vitro CSR systems, IgA,IgG1, and IgE. Lym-Spo11 AS or the sense oligonucleotide was added to the cultures at the start, and total RNA was extracted after 4 days. IgA, IgG1, and IgE mRNAs (J(H)C(H)) and mature germline C(H) transcripts (I(H)C(H)) were quantitatively assayed by RT-PCR. AS inhibited J(H)C(H) expression dose-dependently. In all three systems, the maximum inhibition by 20 microM AS was in the range of 60 to 90%. Interestingly, I(H)C(H) was also inhibited by AS to a similar extent as J(H)C(H). These results suggested that lym-Spo11 plays an important role in the initiation step of CSR.