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Kawasumi-Kita A, Lee SW, Ohtsuka D, Niimi K, Asakura Y, Kitajima K, Sakane Y, Tamura K, Ochi H, Suzuki KIT, Morishita Y. hoxc12/c13 as key regulators for rebooting the developmental program in Xenopus limb regeneration. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3340. [PMID: 38649703 PMCID: PMC11035627 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47093-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/25/2024] Open
Abstract
During organ regeneration, after the initial responses to injury, gene expression patterns similar to those in normal development are reestablished during subsequent morphogenesis phases. This supports the idea that regeneration recapitulates development and predicts the existence of genes that reboot the developmental program after the initial responses. However, such rebooting mechanisms are largely unknown. Here, we explore core rebooting factors that operate during Xenopus limb regeneration. Transcriptomic analysis of larval limb blastema reveals that hoxc12/c13 show the highest regeneration specificity in expression. Knocking out each of them through genome editing inhibits cell proliferation and expression of a group of genes that are essential for development, resulting in autopod regeneration failure, while limb development and initial blastema formation are not affected. Furthermore, the induction of hoxc12/c13 expression partially restores froglet regenerative capacity which is normally very limited compared to larval regeneration. Thus, we demonstrate the existence of genes that have a profound impact alone on rebooting of the developmental program in a regeneration-specific manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aiko Kawasumi-Kita
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Sang-Woo Lee
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Daisuke Ohtsuka
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Kaori Niimi
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Yoshifumi Asakura
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
| | - Keiichi Kitajima
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Yuto Sakane
- Graduate School of Science, Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
| | - Koji Tamura
- Department of Ecological Developmental Adaptability Life Sciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Sendai, 980-8578, Japan
| | - Haruki Ochi
- Institute for Promotion of Medical Science Research, Faculty of Medicine, Yamagata University, 2-2-2 Iida-Nishi, Yamagata, 990-9585, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi T Suzuki
- Graduate School of Science, Hiroshima University, Higashihiroshima, Hiroshima, 739-8526, Japan
- Emerging Model Organisms Facility, Trans-scale Biology Center, National Institute for Basic Biology, National Institutes of Natural Sciences, Okazaki, Aichi, 444-8585, Japan
| | - Yoshihiro Morishita
- Laboratory for Developmental Morphogeometry, RIKEN Center for Biosystems Dynamics Research, Kobe, 650-0047, Japan.
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2
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Aztekin C, Storer MA. To regenerate or not to regenerate: Vertebrate model organisms of regeneration-competency and -incompetency. Wound Repair Regen 2022; 30:623-635. [PMID: 35192230 PMCID: PMC7613846 DOI: 10.1111/wrr.13000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Revised: 01/17/2022] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Why only certain species can regenerate their appendages (e.g. tails and limbs) remains one of the biggest mysteries of nature. Unlike anuran tadpoles and salamanders, humans and other mammals cannot regenerate their limbs, but can only regrow lost digit tips under specific circumstances. Numerous hypotheses have been postulated to explain regeneration-incompetency in mammals. By studying model organisms that show varying regenerative abilities, we now have more opportunities to uncover what contributes to regeneration-incompetency and functionally test which perturbations restore appendage regrowth. Particularly, Xenopus laevis tail and limb, and mouse digit tip model systems exhibit naturally occurring variations in regenerative capacities. Here, we discuss major hypotheses that are suggested to contribute to regeneration-incompetency, and how species with varying regenerative abilities reflect on these hypotheses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Aztekin
- School of Life SciencesSwiss Federal Institute of Technology Lausanne (EPFL)Lausanne
| | - Mekayla A. Storer
- Department of Physiology, Development and Neuroscience and Wellcome‐MRC Cambridge Stem Cell InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridge
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3
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Yanagi N, Kato S, Fukazawa T, Kubo T. Cellular responses in the FGF10-mediated improvement of hindlimb regenerative capacity in Xenopus laevis revealed by single-cell transcriptomics. Dev Growth Differ 2022; 64:266-278. [PMID: 35642106 PMCID: PMC11520959 DOI: 10.1111/dgd.12795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2022] [Revised: 05/16/2022] [Accepted: 05/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Xenopus laevis tadpoles possess regenerative capacity in their hindlimb buds at early developmental stages (stages ~52-54); they can regenerate complete hindlimbs with digits after limb bud amputation. However, they gradually lose their regenerative capacity as metamorphosis proceeds. Tadpoles in late developmental stages regenerate fewer digits (stage ~56), or only form cartilaginous spike without digits or joints (stage ~58 or later) after amputation. Previous studies have shown that administration of fibroblast growth factor 10 (FGF10) in late-stage (stage 56) tadpole hindlimb buds after amputation can improve their regenerative capacity, which means that the cells responding to FGF10 signaling play an important role in limb bud regeneration. In this study, we performed single-cell RNA sequencing (scRNA-seq) of hindlimb buds that were amputated and administered FGF10 by implanting FGF10-soaked beads at a late stage (stage 56), and explored cell clusters exhibiting a differential gene expression pattern compared with that in controls treated with phosphate-buffered saline. The scRNA-seq data showed expansion of fgf8-expressing cells in the cluster of the apical epidermal cap of FGF10-treated hindlimb buds, which was reported previously, indicating that the administration of FGF10 was successful. On analysis, in addition to the epidermal cluster, a subset of myeloid cells and a newly identified cluster of steap4-expressing cells showed remarkable differences in their gene expression profiles between the FGF10- or phosphate-buffered saline-treatment conditions, suggesting a possible role of these clusters in improving the regenerative capacity of hindlimbs via FGF10 administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nodoka Yanagi
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of ScienceThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Sumika Kato
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of ScienceThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Taro Fukazawa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of ScienceThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
| | - Takeo Kubo
- Department of Biological Sciences, Graduate School of ScienceThe University of TokyoTokyoJapan
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4
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Purushothaman S, Lopez Aviña BB, Seifert AW. Sonic hedgehog is Essential for Proximal-Distal Outgrowth of the Limb Bud in Salamanders. Front Cell Dev Biol 2022; 10:797352. [PMID: 35433673 PMCID: PMC9010949 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2022.797352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The developing forelimb has been a foundational model to understand how specified progenitor cells integrate genetic information to produce the tetrapod limb bauplan. Although the reigning hypothesis is that all tetrapods develop limbs in a similar manner, recent work suggests that urodeles have evolved a derived mode of limb dvelopment. Here, we demonstrate through pharmacological and genetic inactivation of Sonic hedgehog (Shh) signaling in axolotls that Shh directs expansion and survival of limb progenitor cells in addition to patterning the limb across the proximodistal and antero-posterior axis. In contrast to inactivation of Shh in mouse or chick embryos where a humerus, radius, and single digit develop, Shh crispant axolotls completely lack forelimbs. In rescuing limb development by implanting SHH-N protein beads into the nascent limb field of Shh crispants, we show that the limb field is specified in the absence of Shh and that hedgehog pathway activation is required to initiate proximodistal outgrowth. When our results are examined alongside other derived aspects of salamander limb development and placed in a phylogenetic context, a new hypothesis emerges whereby the ability for cells at an amputation plane to activate morphogenesis and regenerate a limb may have evolved uniquely in urodeles.
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5
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Aztekin C, Hiscock TW, Gurdon J, Jullien J, Marioni J, Simons BD. Secreted inhibitors drive the loss of regeneration competence in Xenopus limbs. Development 2021; 148:269060. [PMID: 34105722 PMCID: PMC8217717 DOI: 10.1242/dev.199158] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Absence of a specialized wound epidermis is hypothesized to block limb regeneration in higher vertebrates. However, the factors preventing its formation in regeneration-incompetent animals are poorly understood. To characterize the endogenous molecular and cellular regulators of specialized wound epidermis formation in Xenopus laevis tadpoles, and the loss of their regeneration competency during development, we used single-cell transcriptomics and ex vivo regenerating limb cultures. Transcriptomic analysis revealed that the specialized wound epidermis is not a novel cell state, but a re-deployment of the apical-ectodermal-ridge (AER) programme underlying limb development. Enrichment of secreted inhibitory factors, including Noggin, a morphogen expressed in developing cartilage/bone progenitor cells, are identified as key inhibitors of AER cell formation in regeneration-incompetent tadpoles. These factors can be overridden by Fgf10, which operates upstream of Noggin and blocks chondrogenesis. These results indicate that manipulation of the extracellular environment and/or chondrogenesis may provide a strategy to restore regeneration potential in higher vertebrates. Summary: Secreted inhibitors associated with chondrogenic progression inhibit AER cell formation and restrict limb regeneration potential.
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Affiliation(s)
- Can Aztekin
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Tom W Hiscock
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.,Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK.,Institute of Medical Sciences, Foresterhill Health Campus, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen AB25 2ZD, UK
| | - John Gurdon
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Jerome Jullien
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.,Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.,Nantes Université, Inserm, Centre de Recherche en Transplantation et Immunologie, UMR 1064, ITUN, F-44000 Nantes, France
| | - John Marioni
- Cancer Research UK Cambridge Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0RE, UK.,EMBL-European Bioinformatics Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK.,Wellcome Sanger Institute, Wellcome Genome Campus, Cambridge CB10 1SA, UK
| | - Benjamin David Simons
- Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 1QN, UK.,Department of Applied Mathematics and Theoretical Physics, Centre for Mathematical Sciences, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB3 0WA, UK.,Wellcome Trust Centre for Stem Cell Research, University of Cambridge, Cambridge CB2 0AW, UK
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6
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Ma SKY, Chan ASF, Rubab A, Chan WCW, Chan D. Extracellular Matrix and Cellular Plasticity in Musculoskeletal Development. Front Cell Dev Biol 2020; 8:781. [PMID: 32984311 PMCID: PMC7477050 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2020.00781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2020] [Accepted: 07/27/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Cellular plasticity refers to the ability of cell fates to be reprogrammed given the proper signals, allowing for dedifferentiation or transdifferentiation into different cell fates. In vitro, this can be induced through direct activation of gene expression, however this process does not naturally occur in vivo. Instead, the microenvironment consisting of the extracellular matrix (ECM) and signaling factors, directs the signals presented to cells. Often the ECM is involved in regulating both biochemical and mechanical signals. In stem cell populations, this niche is necessary for maintenance and proper function of the stem cell pool. However, recent studies have demonstrated that differentiated or lineage restricted cells can exit their current state and transform into another state under different situations during development and regeneration. This may be achieved through (1) cells responding to a changing niche; (2) cells migrating and encountering a new niche; and (3) formation of a transitional niche followed by restoration of the homeostatic niche to sequentially guide cells along the regenerative process. This review focuses on examples in musculoskeletal biology, with the concept of ECM regulating cells and stem cells in development and regeneration, extending beyond the conventional concept of small population of progenitor cells, but under the right circumstances even “lineage-restricted” or differentiated cells can be reprogrammed to enter into a different fate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia Ka Yan Ma
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | - Aqsa Rubab
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wilson Cheuk Wing Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,Department of Orthopedics Surgery and Traumatology, The University of Hong Kong-Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen, China.,The University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
| | - Danny Chan
- School of Biomedical Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.,The University of Hong Kong Shenzhen Institute of Research and Innovation (HKU-SIRI), Shenzhen, China
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7
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Zhang W, Das P, Kelangi S, Bei M. Potassium channels as potential drug targets for limb wound repair and regeneration. PRECISION CLINICAL MEDICINE 2020; 3:22-33. [PMID: 32257531 PMCID: PMC7093894 DOI: 10.1093/pcmedi/pbz029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2019] [Accepted: 12/22/2019] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Ion channels are a large family of transmembrane proteins, accessible by soluble membrane-impermeable molecules, and thus are targets for development of therapeutic drugs. Ion channels are the second most common target for existing drugs, after G protein-coupled receptors, and are expected to make a big impact on precision medicine in many different diseases including wound repair and regeneration. Research has shown that endogenous bioelectric signaling mediated by ion channels is critical in non-mammalian limb regeneration. However, the role of ion channels in regeneration of limbs in mammalian systems is not yet defined. Methods To explore the role of potassium channels in limb wound repair and regeneration, the hindlimbs of mouse embryos were amputated at E12.5 when the wound is expected to regenerate and E15.5 when the wound is not expected to regenerate, and gene expression of potassium channels was studied. Results Most of the potassium channels were downregulated, except for the potassium channel kcnj8 (Kir6.1) which was upregulated in E12.5 embryos after amputation. Conclusion This study provides a new mouse limb regeneration model and demonstrates that potassium channels are potential drug targets for limb wound healing and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wengeng Zhang
- Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.,Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Pragnya Das
- Center for Regenerative Developmental Biology, The Forsyth Institute, Cambridge, MA 02116, USA
| | - Sarah Kelangi
- Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.,Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Marianna Bei
- Center for Engineering in Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital, Department of Surgery, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.,Shriners Hospital for Children, Boston, MA 02114, USA
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8
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Abstract
Understanding how to promote organ and appendage regeneration is a key goal of regenerative medicine. The frog, Xenopus, can achieve both scar-free healing and tissue regeneration during its larval stages, although it predominantly loses these abilities during metamorphosis and adulthood. This transient regenerative capacity, alongside their close evolutionary relationship with humans, makes Xenopus an attractive model to uncover the mechanisms underlying functional regeneration. Here, we present an overview of Xenopus as a key model organism for regeneration research and highlight how studies of Xenopus have led to new insights into the mechanisms governing regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren S Phipps
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Lindsey Marshall
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Karel Dorey
- Division of Developmental Biology and Medicine, School of Medical Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
| | - Enrique Amaya
- Division of Cell Matrix Biology and Regenerative Medicine, School of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Biology, Medicine and Health, University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK
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9
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Pillai A, Patel S, Ranadive I, Desai I, Balakrishnan S. Fibroblast growth factor-2 signaling modulates matrix reorganization and cell cycle turnover rate in the regenerating tail of Hemidactylus flaviviridis. Acta Histochem 2020; 122:151464. [PMID: 31780191 DOI: 10.1016/j.acthis.2019.151464] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2019] [Revised: 11/06/2019] [Accepted: 11/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Lizards restore their lost tail by the recruitment of multipotent cells which are selectively differentiated into varied cell types so as to sculpt a new tail. The precise coordination of the events involved in this complex process requires crosstalk between many signaling molecules and differential regulation of several mediators that facilitate the achievements of various milestones of regeneration. Fibroblast growth factor-2 is one such signaling molecule which activates a number of intracellular signaling pathways. Herein, the regulatory role of FGF2 during tail regeneration in Hemidactylus flaviviridis was investigated. Upon inhibition of FGFR using SU5402, the FGF2 levels were found to be significantly reduced at both transcript and protein level. Further, the compromised levels of the gelatinases, namely MMP2 and MMP9 in the tail tissues of treated lizards indicate that FGF2 regulates the activity of these enzymes perhaps to facilitate the recruitment of multipotent mesenchymal cells (blastema). The in vivo 5BrdU incorporation assay showed a lower cell proliferation rate in FGF2 signal inhibited animals during all the proliferative stages of regeneration studied. This observation was substantiated by decreased levels of PCNA in treated group. Moreover, from the combined results of Caspase-3 localization and its expression levels in the regenerates of control and SU5402 treated lizards it can be deduced that FGF2 signal regulates apoptosis as well during early stages of regeneration. Overall, the current study indicates beyond doubt that FGF2 signaling plays a pivotal role in orchestrating the matrix reorganization and cell cycle turnover during lizard tail regeneration.
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10
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Easterling MR, Engbrecht KM, Crespi EJ. Endocrine Regulation of Epimorphic Regeneration. Endocrinology 2019; 160:2969-2980. [PMID: 31593236 DOI: 10.1210/en.2019-00321] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Studies aiming to uncover primary mechanisms of regeneration have predominantly focused on genetic pathways regulating specific stages in the regeneration process: wound healing, blastema formation, and pattern formation. However, studies across organisms show that environmental conditions and the physiological state of the animal can affect the rate or quality of regeneration, and endocrine signals are likely the mediators of these effects. Endocrine signals acting directly on receptors expressed in the tissue or via neuroendocrine pathways can affect regeneration by regulating the immune response to injury, allocation of energetic resources, or by enhancing or inhibiting proliferation and differentiation pathways involved in regeneration. This review discusses the cumulative knowledge in the literature about endocrine regulation of regeneration and its importance in future research to advance biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marietta R Easterling
- School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
| | - Kristin M Engbrecht
- School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
- Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, Washington
| | - Erica J Crespi
- School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington
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11
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Easterling MR, Engbrecht KM, Crespi EJ. Endocrine regulation of regeneration: Linking global signals to local processes. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2019; 283:113220. [PMID: 31310748 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2019.113220] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2019] [Revised: 07/08/2019] [Accepted: 07/08/2019] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Regeneration in amphibians and reptiles has been explored since the early 18th century, giving us a working in vivo model to study epimorphic regeneration in vertebrates. Studies aiming to uncover primary mechanisms of regeneration have predominantly focused on genetic pathways regulating specific stages of the regeneration process: wound healing, blastema formation and growth, and pattern formation. However, studies across organisms show that environmental conditions and physiological state of the animal can affect the rate or quality of regeneration, and endocrine signals are likely the mediators of these effects. Endocrine signals working/acting directly on receptors expressed in the structure or via neuroendocrine pathways can affect regeneration by modulating immune response to injury, allocation of energetic resources, or by enhancing or inhibiting proliferation and differentiation pathways in regenerating tissue. This review discusses the cumulative knowledge known about endocrine regulation of regeneration and important future research directions of interest to both ecological and biomedical research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marietta R Easterling
- Washington State University, School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Pullman, WA 99164, United States.
| | - Kristin M Engbrecht
- Washington State University, School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Pullman, WA 99164, United States; Pacific Northwest National Laboratory, Richland, WA 99352, United States
| | - Erica J Crespi
- Washington State University, School of Biological Sciences, Center for Reproductive Biology, Pullman, WA 99164, United States
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12
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Held LI, Sessions SK. Reflections on Bateson's rule: Solving an old riddle about why extra legs are mirror‐symmetric. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2019; 332:219-237. [DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22910] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2019] [Revised: 08/18/2019] [Accepted: 09/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Lewis I. Held
- Department of Biological SciencesTexas Tech University Lubbock Texas
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13
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Chromatin dynamics underlying the precise regeneration of a vertebrate limb - Epigenetic regulation and cellular memory. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2019; 97:16-25. [PMID: 30991117 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2019.04.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2018] [Revised: 04/01/2019] [Accepted: 04/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Wound healing, tissue regeneration, and organ regrowth are all regeneration phenomena observed in vertebrates after an injury. However, the ability to regenerate differs greatly among species. Mammals can undergo wound healing and tissue regeneration, but cannot regenerate an organ; for example, they cannot regrow an amputated limb. In contrast, amphibians and fish have much higher capabilities for organ-level regeneration. In addition to medical studies and those in conventional mammalian models such as mice, studies in amphibians and fish have revealed essential factors for and mechanisms of regeneration, including the regrowth of a limb, tail, or fin. However, the molecular nature of the cellular memory needed to precisely generate a new appendage from an amputation site is not fully understood. Recent reports have indicated that organ regeneration is closely related to epigenetic regulation. For example, the methylation status of genomic DNA is related to the expression of regeneration-related genes, and histone-modification enzymes are required to control the chromatin dynamics for regeneration. A proposed mechanism of cellular memory involving an inheritable system of epigenetic modification led us to hypothesize that epigenetic regulation forms the basis for cellular memory in organ regeneration. Here we summarize the current understanding of the role of epigenetic regulation in organ regeneration and discuss the relationship between organ regeneration and epigenetic memory.
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14
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Tsai SL, Baselga-Garriga C, Melton DA. Blastemal progenitors modulate immune signaling during early limb regeneration. Development 2019; 146:146/1/dev169128. [PMID: 30602532 DOI: 10.1242/dev.169128] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Blastema formation, a hallmark of limb regeneration, requires proliferation and migration of progenitors to the amputation plane. Although blastema formation has been well described, the transcriptional programs that drive blastemal progenitors remain unknown. We transcriptionally profiled dividing and non-dividing cells in regenerating stump tissues, as well as the wound epidermis, during early axolotl limb regeneration. Our analysis revealed unique transcriptional signatures of early dividing cells and, unexpectedly, repression of several core developmental signaling pathways in early regenerating stump tissues. We further identify an immunomodulatory role for blastemal progenitors through interleukin 8 (IL-8), a highly expressed cytokine in subpopulations of early blastemal progenitors. Ectopic il-8 expression in non-regenerating limbs induced myeloid cell recruitment, while IL-8 knockdown resulted in defective myeloid cell retention during late wound healing, delaying regeneration. Furthermore, the il-8 receptor cxcr-1/2 was expressed in myeloid cells, and inhibition of CXCR-1/2 signaling during early stages of limb regeneration prevented regeneration. Altogether, our findings suggest that blastemal progenitors are active early mediators of immune support, and identify CXCR-1/2 signaling as an important immunomodulatory pathway during the initiation of regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie L Tsai
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Clara Baselga-Garriga
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA.,Department of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Harvard University, 16 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
| | - Douglas A Melton
- Department of Stem Cell and Regenerative Biology, Harvard University, 7 Divinity Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02138, USA
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15
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Stocum DL. Nerves and Proliferation of Progenitor Cells in Limb Regeneration. Dev Neurobiol 2018; 79:468-478. [PMID: 30303627 DOI: 10.1002/dneu.22643] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 09/12/2018] [Accepted: 09/22/2018] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
Nerves, in conjunction with the apical epidermal cap (AEC), play an important role in the proliferation of the mesenchymal progenitor cells comprising the blastema of regenerating urodele amphibian limbs. Reinnervation after amputation requires factors supplied by the forming blastema, and neurotrophic factors must be present at or above a quantitative threshold for mitosis of the blastema cells. The AEC forms independently of nerves, but requires nerves to be maintained. Urodele limb buds are independent of nerves for regeneration, but innervation imposes a regenerative requirement for nerve factors on their cells as they differentiate. There are three main ideas on the functional relationship between nerves, AEC, and blastema cells: (1) nerves and AEC produce factors with different roles in maintaining progenitor status and mitosis; (2) the AEC produces the factors that promote blastema cell mitosis, but requires nerves to express them; (3) blastema cells, nerves, and AEC all produce the same factor(s) that additively attain the required threshold for mitosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Stocum
- Department of Biology, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 723 W. Michigan St., Indianapolis, IN, 46202
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16
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Taghiyar L, Hosseini S, Safari F, Bagheri F, Fani N, Stoddart MJ, Alini M, Eslaminejad MB. New insight into functional limb regeneration: A to Z approaches. J Tissue Eng Regen Med 2018; 12:1925-1943. [PMID: 30011424 DOI: 10.1002/term.2727] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2017] [Revised: 02/19/2018] [Accepted: 07/06/2018] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Limb/digit amputation is a common event in humans caused by trauma, medical illness, or surgery. Although the loss of a digit is not lethal, it affects quality of life and imposes high costs on amputees. In recent years, the increasing interest in limb regeneration has led to enhanced scientific knowledge. However, the limited ability to develop functional limb regeneration in the clinical setting suggests that a challenging issue remains in limb regeneration. Recently, the emergence of regenerative engineering is a promising field to address this challenge and close the gap between science and clinical applications. Cell signalling and molecular mechanisms involved in the limb regeneration process have been extensively studied; however, there is still insufficient data on cell therapy and tissue engineering for limb regeneration. In this review, we intend to focus on therapeutic approaches for limb regeneration that are closely related to gene, immune, and stem cell therapies, as well as tissue engineering approaches that take into consideration the peculiar developmental properties of the limbs. In addition, we attempt to identify the challenges of these strategies for limb regeneration studies in terms of clinical settings and as a road map to accomplish the goal of functional human limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Leila Taghiyar
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran.,Department of Developmental Biology, University of Science and Culture, Tehran, Iran
| | - Samaneh Hosseini
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Safari
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | - Fatemeh Bagheri
- Department of Biotechnology, Faculty of Chemical Engineering, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran
| | - Nesa Fani
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
| | | | - Mauro Alini
- AO Research Institute Davos, Davos, Switzerland
| | - Mohamadreza Baghaban Eslaminejad
- Department of Stem Cells and Developmental Biology, Cell Science Research Center, Royan Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Technology, ACECR, Tehran, Iran
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17
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Buch PR, Ranadive I, Desai I, Balarakrishnan S. Cyclooxygenase-2 interacts with MMP and FGF pathways to promote epimorphic regeneration in lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis. Growth Factors 2018; 36:69-77. [PMID: 30196771 DOI: 10.1080/08977194.2018.1497021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/28/2022]
Abstract
Cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) is an inducible enzyme known for its role in promoting inflammation, pain and cancer. It has more recently been attributed a function in epimorphic regeneration of vertebrate appendages. However, its position among the molecular regulators of regeneration remains unclear. This work was aimed at analyzing the influence of COX-2 on critical mediators of regenerative processes in the lizard Hemidactylus flaviviridis. It was found during the early events of regeneration that MMP and FGF genes get altered in their expression in response to administration of etoricoxib, a COX-2 inhibitor. Results herein also reflect a positive correlation between COX-2 activity and gelatinase activities in our system. These observations, for the first time, establish a definitive interaction of the COX-2 signal with the MMPs and FGFs as essential to the initiation of tail regeneration, placing it as one of the top regulators of the molecular events which characterize epimorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pranav R Buch
- a Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science , The M. S. University of Baroda , Vadodara , India
| | - Isha Ranadive
- a Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science , The M. S. University of Baroda , Vadodara , India
| | - Isha Desai
- b N. V. Patel College of Pure and Applied Sciences , Vallabh Vidyanagar , Anand , India
| | - Suresh Balarakrishnan
- a Department of Zoology, Faculty of Science , The M. S. University of Baroda , Vadodara , India
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18
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Stocum DL. Mechanisms of urodele limb regeneration. REGENERATION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2017; 4:159-200. [PMID: 29299322 PMCID: PMC5743758 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.92] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2017] [Accepted: 10/04/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This review explores the historical and current state of our knowledge about urodele limb regeneration. Topics discussed are (1) blastema formation by the proteolytic histolysis of limb tissues to release resident stem cells and mononucleate cells that undergo dedifferentiation, cell cycle entry and accumulation under the apical epidermal cap. (2) The origin, phenotypic memory, and positional memory of blastema cells. (3) The role played by macrophages in the early events of regeneration. (4) The role of neural and AEC factors and interaction between blastema cells in mitosis and distalization. (5) Models of pattern formation based on the results of axial reversal experiments, experiments on the regeneration of half and double half limbs, and experiments using retinoic acid to alter positional identity of blastema cells. (6) Possible mechanisms of distalization during normal and intercalary regeneration. (7) Is pattern formation is a self-organizing property of the blastema or dictated by chemical signals from adjacent tissues? (8) What is the future for regenerating a human limb?
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Affiliation(s)
- David L. Stocum
- Department of BiologyIndiana University−Purdue University Indianapolis723 W. Michigan StIndianapolisIN 46202USA
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19
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Suzuki A, Yoshida H, van Heeringen SJ, Takebayashi-Suzuki K, Veenstra GJC, Taira M. Genomic organization and modulation of gene expression of the TGF-β and FGF pathways in the allotetraploid frog Xenopus laevis. Dev Biol 2017; 426:336-359. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2016.09.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2016] [Revised: 06/10/2016] [Accepted: 09/19/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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20
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Tanaka EM. The Molecular and Cellular Choreography of Appendage Regeneration. Cell 2017; 165:1598-1608. [PMID: 27315477 DOI: 10.1016/j.cell.2016.05.038] [Citation(s) in RCA: 148] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/29/2016] [Revised: 05/02/2016] [Accepted: 05/09/2016] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Recent advances in limb regeneration are revealing the molecular events that integrate growth control, cell fate programming, and positional information to yield the exquisite replacement of the amputated limb. Parallel progress in several invertebrate and vertebrate models has provided a broader context for understanding the mechanisms and the evolution of regeneration. Together, these discoveries provide a foundation for describing the principles underlying regeneration of complex, multi-tissue structures. As such these findings should provide a wealth of ideas for engineers seeking to reconstitute regeneration from constituent parts or to elicit full regeneration from partial regeneration events.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elly M Tanaka
- DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies, Technische Universität Dresden Fetscherstrasse 105, 01307 Dresden, GERMANY.
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21
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Abstract
The Xenopus genus includes several members of aquatic frogs native to Africa but is perhaps best known for the species Xenopus laevis and Xenopus tropicalis. These species were popularized as model organisms from as early as the 1800s and have been instrumental in expanding several biological fields including cell biology, environmental toxicology, regenerative biology, and developmental biology. In fact, much of what we know about the formation and maturation of the vertebrate renal system has been acquired by examining the intricate genetic and morphological patterns that epitomize nephrogenesis in Xenopus. From these numerous reports, we have learned that the process of kidney development is as unique among organs as it is conserved among vertebrates. While development of most organs involves increases in size at a single location, development of the kidney occurs through a series of three increasingly complex nephric structures that are temporally distinct from one another and which occupy discrete spatial locales within the body. These three renal systems all serve to provide homeostatic, osmoregulatory, and excretory functions in animals. Importantly, the kidneys in amphibians, such as Xenopus, are less complex and more easily accessed than those in mammals, and thus tadpoles and frogs provide useful models for understanding our own kidney development. Several descriptive and mechanistic studies conducted with the Xenopus model system have allowed us to elucidate the cellular and molecular mediators of renal patterning and have also laid the foundation for our current understanding of kidney repair mechanisms in vertebrates. While some species-specific responses to renal injury have been observed, we still recognize the advantage of the Xenopus system due to its distinctive similarity to mammalian wound healing, reparative, and regenerative responses. In addition, the first evidence of renal regeneration in an amphibian system was recently demonstrated in Xenopus laevis. As genetic and molecular tools continue to advance, our appreciation for and utilization of this amphibian model organism can only intensify and will certainly provide ample opportunities to further our understanding of renal development and repair.
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22
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Mescher AL, Neff AW, King MW. Inflammation and immunity in organ regeneration. DEVELOPMENTAL AND COMPARATIVE IMMUNOLOGY 2017; 66:98-110. [PMID: 26891614 DOI: 10.1016/j.dci.2016.02.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2015] [Revised: 01/19/2016] [Accepted: 02/09/2016] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
The ability of vertebrates to regenerate amputated appendages is increasingly well-understood at the cellular level. Cells mediating an innate immune response and inflammation in the injured tissues are a prominent feature of the limb prior to formation of a regeneration blastema, with macrophage activity necessary for blastema growth and successful development of the new limb. Studies involving either anti-inflammatory or pro-inflammatory agents suggest that the local inflammation produced by injury and its timely resolution are both important for regeneration, with blastema patterning inhibited in the presence of unresolved inflammation. Various experiments with Xenopus larvae at stages where regenerative competence is declining show improved digit formation after treatment with certain immunosuppressive, anti-inflammatory, or antioxidant agents. Similar work with the larval Xenopus tail has implicated adaptive immunity with regenerative competence and suggests a requirement for regulatory T cells in regeneration, which also occurs in many systems of tissue regeneration. Recent analyses of the human nail organ indicate a capacity for local immune tolerance, suggesting roles for adaptive immunity in the capacity for mammalian appendage regeneration. New information and better understanding regarding the neuroendocrine-immune axis in the response to stressors, including amputation, suggest additional approaches useful for investigating effects of the immune system during repair and regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anthony L Mescher
- Center for Developmental and Regenerative Biology; Indiana University School of Medicine - Bloomington, USA.
| | - Anton W Neff
- Center for Developmental and Regenerative Biology; Indiana University School of Medicine - Bloomington, USA.
| | - Michael W King
- Center for Developmental and Regenerative Biology; Indiana University School of Medicine - Terre Haute, USA.
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23
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Liu LS, Zhao LY, Wang SH, Jiang JP. Research proceedings on amphibian model organisms. DONG WU XUE YAN JIU = ZOOLOGICAL RESEARCH 2016; 37:237-45. [PMID: 27469255 PMCID: PMC4980064 DOI: 10.13918/j.issn.2095-8137.2016.4.237] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2016] [Accepted: 06/10/2016] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Model organisms have long been important in biology and medicine due to their specific characteristics. Amphibians, especially Xenopus, play key roles in answering fundamental questions on developmental biology, regeneration, genetics, and toxicology due to their large and abundant eggs, as well as their versatile embryos, which can be readily manipulated and developed in vivo. Furthermore, amphibians have also proven to be of considerable benefit in human disease research due to their conserved cellular developmental and genomic organization. This review gives a brief introduction on the progress and limitations of these animal models in biology and human disease research, and discusses the potential and challenge of Microhyla fissipes as a new model organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lu-Sha Liu
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China
| | - Lan-Ying Zhao
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China;University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Shou-Hong Wang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China;University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100049, China
| | - Jian-Ping Jiang
- Chengdu Institute of Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Chengdu 610041, China.
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24
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Abstract
Regeneration involves interactions between multiple signaling pathways acting in a spatially and temporally complex manner. As signaling pathways are highly conserved, understanding how regeneration is controlled in animal models exhibiting robust regenerative capacities should aid efforts to stimulate repair in humans. One way to discover molecular regulators of regeneration is to alter gene/protein function and quantify effect(s) on the regenerative process: dedifferentiation/reprograming, stem/progenitor proliferation, migration/remodeling, progenitor cell differentiation and resolution. A powerful approach for applying this strategy to regenerative biology is chemical genetics, the use of small-molecule modulators of specific targets or signaling pathways. Here, we review advances that have been made using chemical genetics for hypothesis-focused and discovery-driven studies aimed at furthering understanding of how regeneration is controlled.
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25
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Adaniya C, Nishikawa A. Formation of a new limb bud at the boundary between a transplanted limb bud and the tail surface of Xenopus tadpoles. Zoolog Sci 2015; 32:223-32. [PMID: 26003976 DOI: 10.2108/zs1400262] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Through transplantation experiments with Xenopus laevis tadpoles, we found a new morphogenetic phenomenon consisting of limb bud formation at the boundary between transplanted whole limb buds and the tail surface. This phenomenon occurs without limb-limb stump interaction and has a number of unique features: (1) Only one extra limb bud was formed per transplant and the new limb and the transplanted limb were bilaterally symmetrical, forming a pair of limb girdles. (2) Extra new limb bud formation occurred not only at the tail but also at other non-limb regions, including abdominal and head surfaces. (3) Successful limb formation required the presence of basal 1/4 region (presumptive limb girdle) of a limb bud explant. (4) New limb formation was host-stage-dependent: before metamorphosis, limb bud formation ratio was high (> 90%), but as the host tadpole entered metamorphosis, this potential declined and morphological abnormalities of new limbs increased. (5) Cell lineage analysis showed that epidermis of the new limb bud always contained many (about 60%) host-derived cells, while new limb cartilage cells were completely graft-derived. These results suggest that heterotopic new limb formation occurs through interaction between graft mesenchyme and host epidermis. Thus, the present study has clarified the two important aspects of limb ontogeny: the importance of presumptive limb girdle for the limb bud initiation and the relationship between limb bud formation potential and metamorphic tissue remodeling. The present experimental system may help to improve our understanding of epithelial-mesenchymal interaction during limb bud initiation and subsequent limb cell differentiation during metamorphosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chieko Adaniya
- Department of Biological Science, Faculty of Life and Environmental Science, Shimane University, 1060 Nishikawatsu, Matsue, Shimane, Japan
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26
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Mitogawa K, Hirata A, Moriyasu M, Makanae A, Miura S, Endo T, Satoh A. Ectopic blastema induction by nerve deviation and skin wounding: a new regeneration model in Xenopus laevis. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 1:26-36. [PMID: 27499859 PMCID: PMC4895307 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.11] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2014] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Recently, the accessory limb model (ALM) has become an alternative study system for limb regeneration studies in axolotls instead of using an amputated limb. ALM progresses limb regeneration study in axolotls because of its advantages. To apply and/or to compare knowledge in axolotl ALM studies to other vertebrates is a conceivable next step. First, Xenopus laevis, an anuran amphibian, was investigated. A Xenopus frog has hypomorphic regeneration ability. Its regeneration ability has been considered intermediate between that of non‐regenerative higher vertebrates and regenerative urodele amphibians. Here, we successfully induced an accessory blastema in Xenopus by skin wounding and rerouting of brachial nerve bundles to the wound site, which is the regular ALM surgery. The induced Xenopus ALM blastemas have limited regenerative potential compared with axolotl ALM blastemas. Comparison of ALM blastemas from species with different regenerative potentials may facilitate the identification of the novel expression programs necessary for the formation of cartilage and other tissues during limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kazumasa Mitogawa
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Ayako Hirata
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Miyuki Moriyasu
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Aki Makanae
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
| | - Shinichirou Miura
- Division of Liberal Arts, Aichi Gakuin UniversityNissinAichi470‐0195Japan
| | - Tetsuya Endo
- Division of Liberal Arts, Aichi Gakuin UniversityNissinAichi470‐0195Japan
| | - Akira Satoh
- Okayama University, Research Core for Interdisciplinary Sciences3‐1‐1 TsushimanakaKitakuOkayama700‐8530Japan
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27
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Distal expression of sprouty (spry) genes during Xenopus laevis limb development and regeneration. Gene Expr Patterns 2014; 15:61-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.gep.2014.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2013] [Revised: 04/03/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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28
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Lobo D, Feldman EB, Shah M, Malone TJ, Levin M. A bioinformatics expert system linking functional data to anatomical outcomes in limb regeneration. REGENERATION (OXFORD, ENGLAND) 2014; 1:37-56. [PMID: 25729585 PMCID: PMC4339036 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.13] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2014] [Revised: 05/12/2014] [Accepted: 06/02/2014] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
Abstract
Amphibians and molting arthropods have the remarkable capacity to regenerate amputated limbs, as described by an extensive literature of experimental cuts, amputations, grafts, and molecular techniques. Despite a rich history of experimental efforts, no comprehensive mechanistic model exists that can account for the pattern regulation observed in these experiments. While bioinformatics algorithms have revolutionized the study of signaling pathways, no such tools have heretofore been available to assist scientists in formulating testable models of large-scale morphogenesis that match published data in the limb regeneration field. Major barriers preventing an algorithmic approach are the lack of formal descriptions for experimental regenerative information and a repository to centralize storage and mining of functional data on limb regeneration. Establishing a new bioinformatics of shape would significantly accelerate the discovery of key insights into the mechanisms that implement complex regeneration. Here, we describe a novel mathematical ontology for limb regeneration to unambiguously encode phenotype, manipulation, and experiment data. Based on this formalism, we present the first centralized formal database of published limb regeneration experiments together with a user-friendly expert system tool to facilitate its access and mining. These resources are freely available for the community and will assist both human biologists and artificial intelligence systems to discover testable, mechanistic models of limb regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Lobo
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Erica B. Feldman
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Michelle Shah
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Taylor J. Malone
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
| | - Michael Levin
- Center for Regenerative and Developmental Biology and Department of BiologyTufts University200 Boston Avenue, Suite 4600MedfordMA02155U.S.A.
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29
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Monaghan JR, Stier AC, Michonneau F, Smith MD, Pasch B, Maden M, Seifert AW. Experimentally induced metamorphosis in axolotls reduces regenerative rate and fidelity. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014; 1:2-14. [PMID: 27499857 PMCID: PMC4895291 DOI: 10.1002/reg2.8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2013] [Revised: 12/23/2013] [Accepted: 12/24/2013] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
While most tetrapods are unable to regenerate severed body parts, amphibians display a remarkable ability to regenerate an array of structures. Frogs can regenerate appendages as larva, but they lose this ability around metamorphosis. In contrast, salamanders regenerate appendages as larva, juveniles, and adults. However, the extent to which fundamental traits (e.g., metamorphosis, body size, aging, etc.) restrict regenerative ability remains contentious. Here we utilize the ability of normally paedomorphic adult axolotls (Ambystoma mexicanum) to undergo induced metamorphosis by thyroxine exposure to test how metamorphosis and body size affects regeneration in age‐matched paedomorphic and metamorphic individuals. We show that body size does not affect regeneration in adult axolotls, but metamorphosis causes a twofold reduction in regeneration rate, and lead to carpal and digit malformations. Furthermore, we find evidence that metamorphic blastemal cells may take longer to traverse the cell cycle and display a lower proliferative rate. This study identifies the axolotl as a powerful system to study how metamorphosis restricts regeneration independently of developmental stage, body size, and age; and more broadly how metamorphosis affects tissue‐specific changes.
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Affiliation(s)
- James R Monaghan
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
| | - Adrian C Stier
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
| | - François Michonneau
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Florida Museum of Natural History University of Florida Gainesville Florida 32611 USA
| | - Matthew D Smith
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
| | - Bret Pasch
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
| | - Malcolm Maden
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
| | - Ashley W Seifert
- Department of Biology University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA; Nexus Biology Group University of Florida 223 Bartram Hall, P.O. Box 118525 Gainesville Florida 32610 USA
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30
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Abstract
Regeneration is a process by which organisms replace damaged or amputated organs to restore normal body parts. Regeneration of many tissues or organs requires proliferation of stem cells or stem cell-like blastema cells. This regenerative growth is often initiated by cell death pathways induced by damage. The executors of regenerative growth are a group of growth-promoting signaling pathways, including JAK/STAT, EGFR, Hippo/YAP, and Wnt/β-catenin. These pathways are also essential to developmental growth, but in regeneration, they are activated in distinct ways and often at higher strengths, under the regulation by certain stress-responsive signaling pathways, including JNK signaling. Growth suppressors are important in termination of regeneration to prevent unlimited growth and also contribute to the loss of regenerative capacity in nonregenerative organs. Here, we review cellular and molecular growth regulation mechanisms induced by organ damage in several models with different regenerative capacities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gongping Sun
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Waksman Institute and Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA
| | - Kenneth D Irvine
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Waksman Institute and Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, Rutgers The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA.
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31
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Heber-Katz E, Zhang Y, Bedelbaeva K, Song F, Chen X, Stocum DL. Cell cycle regulation and regeneration. Curr Top Microbiol Immunol 2013; 367:253-76. [PMID: 23263201 DOI: 10.1007/82_2012_294] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
Regeneration of ear punch holes in the MRL mouse and amputated limbs of the axolotl show a number of similarities. A large proportion of the fibroblasts of the uninjured MRL mouse ear are arrested in G2 of the cell cycle, and enter nerve-dependent mitosis after injury to form a ring-shaped blastema that regenerates the ear tissue. Multiple cell types contribute to the establishment of the regeneration blastema of the urodele limb by dedifferentiation, and there is substantial reason to believe that the cells of this early blastema are also arrested in G2, and enter mitosis under the influence of nerve-dependent factors supplied by the apical epidermal cap. Molecular analysis reveals other parallels, such as; (1) the upregulation of Evi5, a centrosomal protein that prevents mitosis by stabilizing Emi1, a protein that inhibits the degradation of cyclins by the anaphase promoting complex and (2) the expression of sodium channels by the epidermis. A central feature in the entry into the cell cycle by MRL ear fibroblasts is a natural downregulation of p21, and knockout of p21 in wild-type mice confers regenerative capacity on non-regenerating ear tissue. Whether the same is true for entry into the cell cycle in regenerating urodele limbs is presently unknown.
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32
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Nerve independent limb induction in axolotls. Dev Biol 2013; 381:213-26. [PMID: 23769980 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2013.05.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2013] [Revised: 04/18/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 02/04/2023]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians can regenerate their limbs. During limb regeneration, dermal fibroblasts are transformed into undifferentiated cells called blastema cells. These dermis-blastema cells show multipotency. Such so-called endogenous reprogramming of cell differentiation is one of the main targets of amphibian limb regeneration studies. It is well recognized that nerve presence controls the initiation of limb regeneration. Accordingly, nerve factors have been sought in amphibian limb regeneration. To investigate it, a relatively new study system called the accessory limb model (ALM) was developed. Using ALM, two signaling cascades (Fgf and Gdf5 signaling) came under focus. In the present study, Growth and differentiation factor-5 (Gdf5) application to wounded skin initiated limb regeneration responses and resulted in induction of a blastema-like structure in the absence of a nerve. However, the Gdf5-induced structure showed defects as a regeneration blastema, such as absence of detectable Prrx1 expression by in situ hybridization. The defects could be remedied by additional Fibroblasts growth factor (Fgf) inputs. These two inputs (Gdf5 and Fgfs) were sufficient to substitute for the nerve functions in the induction of limb regeneration. Indeed, Fgf2, Fgf8, and Gdf5 applications with the contralateral skin graft resulted in limb formation without nerve supply. Furthermore, acquisition of cartilage differentiation potential of dermal fibroblasts was tested in an in vivo and in vitro combination assay. Dermal fibroblasts cultured with Gdf5 were difficult to participate in cartilage formation when the cultured cells were grafted into cartilage forming region. In contrast, dermal fibroblasts cultured with Fgf2 and Fgf8 became easier to participate into cartilage formation in the same procedure. These results contribute to our understanding of molecular mechanisms of the early phase of amphibian limb regeneration.
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Knapp D, Schulz H, Rascon CA, Volkmer M, Scholz J, Nacu E, Le M, Novozhilov S, Tazaki A, Protze S, Jacob T, Hubner N, Habermann B, Tanaka EM. Comparative transcriptional profiling of the axolotl limb identifies a tripartite regeneration-specific gene program. PLoS One 2013; 8:e61352. [PMID: 23658691 PMCID: PMC3641036 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0061352] [Citation(s) in RCA: 87] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/10/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2013] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Understanding how the limb blastema is established after the initial wound healing response is an important aspect of regeneration research. Here we performed parallel expression profile time courses of healing lateral wounds versus amputated limbs in axolotl. This comparison between wound healing and regeneration allowed us to identify amputation-specific genes. By clustering the expression profiles of these samples, we could detect three distinguishable phases of gene expression - early wound healing followed by a transition-phase leading to establishment of the limb development program, which correspond to the three phases of limb regeneration that had been defined by morphological criteria. By focusing on the transition-phase, we identified 93 strictly amputation-associated genes many of which are implicated in oxidative-stress response, chromatin modification, epithelial development or limb development. We further classified the genes based on whether they were or were not significantly expressed in the developing limb bud. The specific localization of 53 selected candidates within the blastema was investigated by in situ hybridization. In summary, we identified a set of genes that are expressed specifically during regeneration and are therefore, likely candidates for the regulation of blastema formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dunja Knapp
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Herbert Schulz
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Cynthia Alexander Rascon
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Michael Volkmer
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Cologne, Germany
| | - Juliane Scholz
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Eugen Nacu
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Mu Le
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Sergey Novozhilov
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Akira Tazaki
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
| | - Stephanie Protze
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Tina Jacob
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
| | - Norbert Hubner
- Max Delbrueck Center for Molecular Medicine, Berlin, Germany
| | - Bianca Habermann
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Max Planck Institute for Biology of Aging, Cologne, Germany
| | - Elly M. Tanaka
- Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics, Dresden, Germany
- Technical University Dresden, DFG Research Center for Regenerative Therapies Dresden, Dresden, Germany
- * E-mail:
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Abstract
Nerve axons and the apical epidermal cap (AEC) are both essential for the formation of an accumulation blastema by amputated limbs of urodele salamanders. The AEC forms in the absence of axons, but is not maintained, and blastema formation fails. Growth stages of the blastema become nerve-independent for morphogenesis, but remain dependent on the nerve for blastema growth. Denervated growth stage blastemas form smaller than normal skeletal parts, owing to diminished mitosis, but form the full proximodistal array of skeletal elements. This difference in nerve dependency of morphogenesis and proliferation is hypothesized to be the result of a dependence of the AEC on nerves for blastema cell proliferation but not for blastema morphogenesis. Regenerating axons induce the synthesis and secretion of the anterior gradient protein (AGP) by distal Schwann cells during dedifferentiation and by the gland cells of the AEC during blastema growth stages. AGP promotes the regeneration of a denervated limb to digit stages when electroporated into the limb during dedifferentiation. Once a critical mass of blastema cells has been attained, the blastema can undergo morphogenesis in the absence of the nerve, but the regenerate will be a miniature, because the nerve is no longer inducing the AEC to carry out its AGP-mediated proliferative function. AGP expression by both Schwann cells and the AEC is induced by axons, but the nature of the inductive agent is unclear.
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Affiliation(s)
- David L Stocum
- Department of Biology and Center for Regenerative Biology and Medicine, Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis, 723 W. Michigan St, Indianapolis, IN 46202, USA.
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Abstract
For most Xenopus embryos, life is very short. The majority of research labs working with this model organism study the processes of early vertebrate patterning and morphogenesis. And quite rightly too, since over the last two decades labs across the world have provided the fate maps, animal cap assays, expression patterns, and functional screens that put Xenopus firmly on the map as a developmental model organism. Xenopus, however, still has a lot more to offer. A new wave of interest in later developmental events has followed the development of transgenic technology, which has opened up opportunities for studying events that occur after stage 40. In this chapter, I will give a brief descriptive background of some of the different types of regeneration studied in Xenopus, and provide protocols and morphological scoring information with the aim of facilitating progress in understanding regeneration in this model system. Additionally, some particularly elegant recent examples are used to highlight the advantages of Xenopus as a model for regeneration and the future opportunities that this offers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline W Beck
- Department of Zoology, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand.
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Seifert AW, Monaghan JR, Smith MD, Pasch B, Stier AC, Michonneau F, Maden M. The influence of fundamental traits on mechanisms controlling appendage regeneration. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2011; 87:330-45. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1469-185x.2011.00199.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
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Blastema induction in aneurogenic state and Prrx-1 regulation by MMPs and FGFs in Ambystoma mexicanum limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2011; 355:263-74. [PMID: 21539833 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2011.04.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2010] [Revised: 03/28/2011] [Accepted: 04/18/2011] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Urodele amphibians can regenerate amputated limbs. It has been considered that differentiated dermal tissues generate multipotent and undifferentiated cells called blastema cells during limb regeneration. In early phases of limb regeneration, blastema cells are induced by nerves and the apical epithelial cap (AEC). We had previously investigated the role of neurotrophic factors in blastema or blastema-like formation consisting of Prrx-1 positive cells. A new system suitable for investigating early phases of limb regeneration, called the accessory limb model (ALM), was recently developed. In this study, we performed a comparative transcriptome analysis between a blastema and wound using ALM. Matrix metalloproteinase (MMP) and fibroblast growth factor (FGF) signaling components were observed to be predominantly expressed in ALM blastema cells. Furthermore, we found that MMP activity induced a blastema marker gene, Prrx-1, in vitro, and FGF signaling pathways worked in coordination to maintain Prrx-1 expression and ALM blastema formation. Furthermore, we demonstrated that these two activities were sufficient to induce an ALM blastema in the absence of a nerve in vivo.
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Neff AW, King MW, Mescher AL. Dedifferentiation and the role of sall4 in reprogramming and patterning during amphibian limb regeneration. Dev Dyn 2011; 240:979-89. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/29/2010] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
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39
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Stocum DL, Cameron JA. Looking proximally and distally: 100 years of limb regeneration and beyond. Dev Dyn 2011; 240:943-68. [DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.22553] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/18/2010] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
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40
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Advances in understanding tissue regenerative capacity and mechanisms in animals. Nat Rev Genet 2010; 11:710-22. [PMID: 20838411 DOI: 10.1038/nrg2879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 297] [Impact Index Per Article: 21.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Questions about how and why tissue regeneration occurs have captured the attention of countless biologists, biomedical engineers and clinicians. Regenerative capacity differs greatly across organs and organisms, and a range of model systems that use different regenerative strategies and that offer different technical advantages have been studied to understand regeneration. Making use of this range of systems and approaches, recent advances have allowed progress to be made in understanding several key issues that are common to natural regenerative events. These issues include: the determination of regenerative capacity; the importance of stem cells, dedifferentiation and transdifferentiation; how regenerative signals are initiated and targeted; and the mechanisms that control regenerative proliferation and patterning.
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Cartilage engineering from mesenchymal stem cells. ADVANCES IN BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING/BIOTECHNOLOGY 2010; 123:163-200. [PMID: 20535603 DOI: 10.1007/10_2010_67] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Mesenchymal progenitor cells known as multipotent mesenchymal stromal cells or mesenchymal stem cells (MSC) have been isolated from various tissues. Since they are able to differentiate along the mesenchymal lineages of cartilage and bone, they are regarded as promising sources for the treatment of skeletal defects. Tissue regeneration in the adult organism and in vitro engineering of tissues is hypothesized to follow the principles of embryogenesis. The embryonic development of the skeleton has been studied extensively with respect to the regulatory mechanisms governing morphogenesis, differentiation, and tissue formation. Various concepts have been designed for engineering tissues in vitro based on these developmental principles, most of them involving regulatory molecules such as growth factors or cytokines known to be the key regulators in developmental processes. Growth factors most commonly used for in vitro cultivation of cartilage tissue belong to the fibroblast growth factor (FGF) family, the transforming growth factor-beta (TGF-β) super-family, and the insulin-like growth factor (IGF) family. In this chapter, in vivo actions of members of these growth factors described in the literature are compared with in vitro concepts of cartilage engineering making use of these growth factors.
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Tamura K, Ohgo S, Yokoyama H. Limb blastema cell: A stem cell for morphological regeneration. Dev Growth Differ 2009; 52:89-99. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.2009.01144.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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43
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Beck CW, Izpisúa Belmonte JC, Christen B. Beyond early development: Xenopus as an emerging model for the study of regenerative mechanisms. Dev Dyn 2009; 238:1226-48. [PMID: 19280606 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.21890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 126] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/02/2023] Open
Abstract
While Xenopus is a well-known model system for early vertebrate development, in recent years, it has also emerged as a leading model for regeneration research. As an anuran amphibian, Xenopus laevis can regenerate the larval tail and limb by means of the formation of a proliferating blastema, the lens of the eye by transdifferentiation of nearby tissues, and also exhibits a partial regeneration of the postmetamorphic froglet forelimb. With the availability of inducible transgenic techniques for Xenopus, recent experiments are beginning to address the functional role of genes in the process of regeneration. The use of soluble inhibitors has also been very successful in this model. Using the more traditional advantages of Xenopus, others are providing important lineage data on the origin of the cells that make up the tissues of the regenerate. Finally, transcriptome analyses of regenerating tissues seek to identify the genes and cellular processes that enable successful regeneration. Developmental Dynamics 238:1226-1248, 2009. (c) 2009 Wiley-Liss, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline W Beck
- Department of Zoology and Genetics Otago, University of Otago, New Zealand.
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44
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Muneoka K, Allan CH, Yang X, Lee J, Han M. Mammalian regeneration and regenerative medicine. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2008; 84:265-80. [DOI: 10.1002/bdrc.20137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/12/2022]
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45
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Neurotrophic regulation of epidermal dedifferentiation during wound healing and limb regeneration in the axolotl (Ambystoma mexicanum). Dev Biol 2008; 319:321-35. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2008.04.030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 104] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/17/2008] [Revised: 04/21/2008] [Accepted: 04/22/2008] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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46
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Taniguchi Y, Sugiura T, Tazaki A, Watanabe K, Mochii M. Spinal cord is required for proper regeneration of the tail in Xenopus tadpoles. Dev Growth Differ 2008; 50:109-20. [PMID: 18211586 DOI: 10.1111/j.1440-169x.2007.00981.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Tail regeneration in urodeles is dependent on the spinal cord (SC), but it is believed that anuran larvae regenerate normal tails without the SC. To evaluate the precise role of the SC in anuran tail regeneration, we developed a simple operation method to ablate the SC completely and minimize the damage to the tadpole using Xenopus laevis. The SC-ablated tadpole regenerated a twisted and smaller tail. These morphological abnormalities were attributed to defects in the notochord (NC), as the regenerated NC in the SC-ablated tail was short, slim and twisted. The SC ablation never affected the early steps of the regeneration, including closure of the amputated surface with epidermis and accumulation of the NC precursor cells. The proliferation rate of the NC precursor cells, however, was reduced, and NC cell maturation was retarded in the SC-ablated tail. These results show that the SC has an essential role in the normal tail regeneration of Xenopus larvae, especially in the proliferation and differentiation of the NC cells. Gene expression analysis and implantation of a bead soaked with growth factor showed that fibroblast growth factor-2 and -10 were involved in the signaling molecules, which were expressed in the SC and stimulated growth of the NC cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuka Taniguchi
- Department of Life Science, Graduate School of Life Science, University of Hyogo, 3-2-1 Kouto, Kamigori, Akou, Hyogo 678-1297, Japan
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47
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Abstract
While urodele amphibians (newts and salamanders) can regenerate limbs as adults, other tetrapods (reptiles, birds and mammals) cannot and just undergo wound healing. In adult mammals such as mice and humans, the wound heals and a scar is formed after injury, while wound healing is completed without scarring in an embryonic mouse. Completion of regeneration and wound healing takes a long time in regenerative and non-regenerative limbs, respectively. However, it is the early steps that are critical for determining the extent of regenerative response after limb amputation, ranging from wound healing with scar formation, scar-free wound healing, hypomorphic limb regeneration to complete limb regeneration. In addition to the accumulation of information on gene expression during limb regeneration, functional analysis of signaling molecules has recently shown important roles of fibroblast growth factor (FGF), Wnt/beta-catenin and bone morphogenic protein (BMP)/Msx signaling. Here, the routine steps of wound healing/limb regeneration and signaling molecules specifically involved in limb regeneration are summarized. Regeneration of embryonic mouse digit tips and anuran amphibian (Xenopus) limbs shows intermediate regenerative responses between the two extremes, those of adult mammals (least regenerative) and urodele amphibians (more regenerative), providing a range of models to study the various abilities of limbs to regenerate.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Yokoyama
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA.
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48
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Yokoyama H, Ogino H, Stoick-Cooper CL, Grainger RM, Moon RT. Wnt/beta-catenin signaling has an essential role in the initiation of limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2007; 306:170-8. [PMID: 17442299 PMCID: PMC2703180 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 90] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2006] [Revised: 03/09/2007] [Accepted: 03/09/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Anuran (frog) tadpoles and urodeles (newts and salamanders) are the only vertebrates capable of fully regenerating amputated limbs. During the early stages of regeneration these amphibians form a "blastema", a group of mesenchymal progenitor cells that specifically directs the regrowth of the limb. We report that wnt-3a is expressed in the apical epithelium of regenerating Xenopus laevis limb buds, at the appropriate time and place to play a role during blastema formation. To test whether Wnt/beta-catenin signaling is required for limb regeneration, we created transgenic X. laevis tadpoles that express Dickkopf-1 (Dkk1), a specific inhibitor of Wnt/beta-catenin signaling, under the control of a heat-shock promoter. Heat-shock immediately before limb amputation or during early blastema formation blocked limb regeneration but did not affect the development of contralateral, un-amputated limb buds. When the transgenic tadpoles were heat-shocked following the formation of a blastema, however, they retained the ability to regenerate partial hindlimb structures. Furthermore, heat-shock induced Dkk1 blocked fgf-8 but not fgf-10 expression in the blastema. We conclude that Wnt/beta-catenin signaling has an essential role during the early stages of limb regeneration, but is not absolutely required after blastema formation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hitoshi Yokoyama
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Hajime Ogino
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Cristi L. Stoick-Cooper
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
| | - Rob M. Grainger
- Department of Biology, University of Virginia, Charlottesville, VA 22904, USA
| | - Randall T. Moon
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Pharmacology, Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, WA 98195, USA
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49
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Stoick-Cooper CL, Moon RT, Weidinger G. Advances in signaling in vertebrate regeneration as a prelude to regenerative medicine. Genes Dev 2007; 21:1292-315. [PMID: 17545465 DOI: 10.1101/gad.1540507] [Citation(s) in RCA: 218] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
While all animals have evolved strategies to respond to injury and disease, their ability to functionally recover from loss of or damage to organs or appendages varies widely damage to skeletal muscle, but, unlike amphibians and fish, they fail to regenerate heart, lens, retina, or appendages. The relatively young field of regenerative medicine strives to develop therapies aimed at improving regenerative processes in humans and is predicated on >40 years of success with bone marrow transplants. Further progress will be accelerated by implementing knowledge about the molecular mechanisms that regulate regenerative processes in model organisms that naturally possess the ability to regenerate organs and/or appendages. In this review we summarize the current knowledge about the signaling pathways that regulate regeneration of amphibian and fish appendages, fish heart, and mammalian liver and skeletal muscle. While the cellular mechanisms and the cell types involved in regeneration of these systems vary widely, it is evident that shared signals are involved in tissue regeneration. Signals provided by the immune system appear to act as triggers of many regenerative processes. Subsequently, pathways that are best known for their importance in regulating embryonic development, in particular fibroblast growth factor (FGF) and Wnt/beta-catenin signaling (as well as others), are required for progenitor cell formation or activation and for cell proliferation and specification leading to tissue regrowth. Experimental activation of these pathways or interference with signals that inhibit regenerative processes can augment or even trigger regeneration in certain contexts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristi L Stoick-Cooper
- Department of Pharmacology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, and Institute for Stem Cell and Regenerative Medicine, University of Washington School of Medicine, Seattle, Washington 98195, USA
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50
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Suzuki M, Satoh A, Ide H, Tamura K. Transgenic Xenopus with prx1 limb enhancer reveals crucial contribution of MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways in blastema formation during limb regeneration. Dev Biol 2007; 304:675-86. [PMID: 17303106 DOI: 10.1016/j.ydbio.2007.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2006] [Revised: 01/09/2007] [Accepted: 01/09/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Understanding the mechanisms that control amphibian limb regeneration should allow us to decipher the critical differences between amphibians and humans, which have the limited ability of organ regeneration. However, many issues at the cellular and molecular levels still remain unresolved. We have generated a transgenic Xenopus laevis line that expresses green fluorescent protein (GFP) under the control of mouse prx1 limb enhancer, which directs reporter gene expression in limb mesenchyme in mice, and found that GFP accumulated in blastemal mesenchymal cells of the transgenic froglets after limb amputation. Thus, this transgenic line should provide a new approach to gain insights into the cellular dynamics and signaling pathways involved in limb blastema formation. We have also developed a culture system for forelimb explants of froglets and found that treatment with inhibitors of mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK) kinase 1/2 (MEK1/2) and phosphatidylinositol 3-kinase (PI3K) repressed GFP expression. These effects were partially reversible, and down-regulation of GFP was associated with inhibition of cell-cycle progression and induction of ectopic apoptosis. In addition, we found that ERK1/2 and AKT, downstream mediators of MEK1/2 and PI3K pathways, were activated in amputated forelimb stumps. These results demonstrate that MEK/ERK and PI3K/AKT pathways regulate limb blastema formation in the X. laevis froglet.
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Affiliation(s)
- Makoto Suzuki
- Department of Developmental Biology and Neurosciences, Graduate School of Life Sciences, Tohoku University, Aobayama Aoba-ku, Sendai 980-8578, Japan
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