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Ro H, Hur TL, Rhee M. Ubiquitin conjugation system for body axes specification in vertebrates. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2015. [DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2015.1026399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
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2
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Moffat LL, Robinson RE, Bakoulis A, Clark SG. The conserved transmembrane RING finger protein PLR-1 downregulates Wnt signaling by reducing Frizzled, Ror and Ryk cell-surface levels in C. elegans. Development 2014; 141:617-28. [PMID: 24401370 DOI: 10.1242/dev.101600] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
Wnts control a wide range of essential developmental processes, including cell fate specification, axon guidance and anteroposterior neuronal polarization. We identified a conserved transmembrane RING finger protein, PLR-1, that governs the response to Wnts by lowering cell-surface levels of the Frizzled family of Wnt receptors in Caenorhabditis elegans. Loss of PLR-1 activity in the neuron AVG causes its anteroposterior polarity to be symmetric or reversed because signaling by the Wnts CWN-1 and CWN-2 are inappropriately activated, whereas ectopic PLR-1 expression blocks Wnt signaling and target gene expression. Frizzleds are enriched at the cell surface; however, when PLR-1 and Frizzled are co-expressed, Frizzled is not detected at the surface but instead is colocalized with PLR-1 in endosomes. The Frizzled cysteine-rich domain (CRD) and invariant second intracellular loop lysine are crucial for PLR-1 downregulation. The PLR-1 RING finger and protease-associated (PA) domain are essential for activity. In a Frizzled-dependent manner, PLR-1 reduces surface levels of the Wnt receptors CAM-1/Ror and LIN-18/Ryk. PLR-1 is a homolog of the mammalian transmembrane E3 ubiquitin ligases RNF43 and ZNRF3, which control Frizzled surface levels in an R-spondin-sensitive manner. We propose that PLR-1 downregulates Wnt receptor surface levels via lysine ubiquitylation of Frizzled to coordinate spatial and temporal responses to Wnts during neuronal development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura L Moffat
- Molecular Neurobiology Program, Department of Pharmacology, Skirball Institute, NYU School of Medicine, New York, NY 10016, USA
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3
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Goliath family E3 ligases regulate the recycling endosome pathway via VAMP3 ubiquitylation. EMBO J 2013; 32:524-37. [PMID: 23353890 DOI: 10.1038/emboj.2013.1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2012] [Accepted: 01/02/2013] [Indexed: 11/08/2022] Open
Abstract
Diverse cellular processes depend on endocytosis, intracellular vesicle trafficking, sorting and exocytosis, processes regulated post-transcriptionally by modifications such as phosphorylation and ubiquitylation. In addition to sorting to the lysosome, cargo is recycled to the plasma membrane via recycling endosomes. Here, we describe a role of the goliath gene family of protease-associated (PA) domain E3 ligases in regulating recycling endosome trafficking. The two Drosophila members of this family--Goliath and Godzilla(CG10277)--are located on endosomes, and both ectopic expression and loss-of-function lead to the accumulation of Rab5-positive giant endosomes. Furthermore, the human homologue RNF167 exhibits similar behaviour. We show that the soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive fusion attachment protein receptor (SNARE) protein VAMP3 is a target of these ubiquitin ligases, and that recycling endosome trafficking is abrogated in response to their activity. Furthermore, mutation of the Godzilla ubiquitylation target lysines on VAMP3 abrogates the formation of enlarged endosomes induced by either Godzilla or RNF167. Thus, Goliath ubiquitin ligases play a novel role in regulating recycling endosome trafficking via ubiquitylation of the VAMP3 SNARE protein.
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Pshennikova ES, Voronina AS. Cement gland as the adhesion organ in Xenopus laevis embryos. Russ J Dev Biol 2012. [DOI: 10.1134/s1062360411040096] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
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Wehner P, Shnitsar I, Urlaub H, Borchers A. RACK1 is a novel interaction partner of PTK7 that is required for neural tube closure. Development 2011; 138:1321-7. [PMID: 21350015 DOI: 10.1242/dev.056291] [Citation(s) in RCA: 72] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
RACK1 is an evolutionarily conserved intracellular adaptor protein that is involved in a wide range of processes including cell adhesion and migration; however, its role in vertebrate development is largely unknown. Here, we identify RACK1 as a novel interaction partner of PTK7, a regulator of planar cell polarity that is necessary for neural tube closure. RACK1 is likewise required for Xenopus neural tube closure. Further, explant assays suggest that PTK7 and RACK1 are required for neural convergent extension. Mechanistically, RACK1 is necessary for the PTK7-mediated membrane localization of Dishevelled (DSH). RACK1 facilitates the PTK7-DSH interaction by recruiting PKCδ1, a known effector of DSH membrane translocation. These data place RACK1 in a novel signaling cascade that translocates DSH to the plasma membrane and regulates vertebrate neural tube closure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter Wehner
- Department of Developmental Biochemistry, Center of Molecular Physiology of the Brain, GZMB, University of Goettingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, 37077 Goettingen, Germany
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Fiol DF, Sanmarti E, Lim AH, Kültz D. A novel GRAIL E3 ubiquitin ligase promotes environmental salinity tolerance in euryhaline tilapia. Biochim Biophys Acta Gen Subj 2010; 1810:439-45. [PMID: 21126558 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbagen.2010.11.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/15/2010] [Revised: 11/14/2010] [Accepted: 11/17/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) are euryhaline fishes capable of tolerating large salinity changes. In a previous study aimed to identify genes involved in osmotolerance, we isolated an mRNA sequence with similarity to GRAIL (Gene Related to Anergy In Lymphocytes), which is a critical regulator of adaptive immunity and development. Tilapia GRAIL contains a PA (protease associated) domain and a C3H2C3 RING finger domain indicative of E3 ubiquitin ligase activity. SCOPE OF REVIEW Western blots analysis was used to assess GRAIL expression pattern and responses to hyperosmotic stress. Immunohistochemistry was used to reveal the cellular localization of GRAIL in gill epithelium. Overexpression in HEK293 T-Rex cells was used to functionally characterize tilapia GRAIL. Salinity stress causes strong up-regulation of both mRNA and protein levels of tilapia GRAIL in gill epithelium. Tissue distribution of GRAIL protein is mainly confined to gill epithelium, which is the primary tissue responsible for osmoregulation of teleost fishes. Overexpression of tilapia GRAIL in HEK293 cells increases cell survival (cell viability) while decreases apoptosis during salinity challenge. MAJOR CONCLUSIONS Our data indicate that tilapia GRAIL is a novel E3 ubiquitin ligase involved in osmotic stress signaling, which promotes environmental salinity tolerance by supporting gill cell function during hyperosmotic stress. GENERAL SIGNIFICANCE Involvement of tilapia GRAIL in the osmotic stress response suggests that GRAIL E3 ubiquitin ligases play a broader role in environmental stress responses, beyond their documented functions in adaptive immunity and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Diego F Fiol
- Physiological Genomics Group, Department of Animal Sciences, University of California at Davis, CA 95616, USA
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7
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Wagner G, Peradziryi H, Wehner P, Borchers A. PlexinA1 interacts with PTK7 and is required for neural crest migration. Biochem Biophys Res Commun 2010; 402:402-7. [PMID: 20946874 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbrc.2010.10.044] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2010] [Accepted: 10/08/2010] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Members of the plexin protein family are known regulators of axon guidance, but recent data indicate that they have broader functions in the regulation of embryonic morphogenesis. Here we provide further evidence of this by showing that PlexinA1 is expressed in Xenopus neural crest cells and is required for their migration. PlexinA1 expression is detected in migrating cranial neural crest cells and knockdown of PlexinA1 expression using Morpholino oligonucleotides inhibits neural crest migration. PlexinA1 likely affects neural crest migration by interaction with PTK7, a regulator of planar cell polarity that is required for neural crest migration. PlexinA1 and PTK7 interact in immunoprecipitation assays and show phenotypic interaction in co-injection experiments. Considering that plexins and PTK7 have been shown to genetically interact in Drosophila axon guidance and chick cardiac morphogenesis, our data suggest that this interaction is evolutionary conserved and may be relevant for a broad range of morphogenetic events including the migration of neural crest cells in Xenopus laevis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gabriele Wagner
- Department of Developmental Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CMPB), GZMB, University of Göttingen, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg 11, 37077 Göttingen, Germany
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8
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Hermo L, Pelletier RM, Cyr DG, Smith CE. Surfing the wave, cycle, life history, and genes/proteins expressed by testicular germ cells. Part 4: intercellular bridges, mitochondria, nuclear envelope, apoptosis, ubiquitination, membrane/voltage-gated channels, methylation/acetylation, and transcription factors. Microsc Res Tech 2010; 73:364-408. [PMID: 19941288 DOI: 10.1002/jemt.20785] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
As germ cells divide and differentiate from spermatogonia to spermatozoa, they share a number of structural and functional features that are common to all generations of germ cells and these features are discussed herein. Germ cells are linked to one another by large intercellular bridges which serve to move molecules and even large organelles from the cytoplasm of one cell to another. Mitochondria take on different shapes and features and topographical arrangements to accommodate their specific needs during spermatogenesis. The nuclear envelope and pore complex also undergo extensive modifications concomitant with the development of germ cell generations. Apoptosis is an event that is normally triggered by germ cells and involves many proteins. It occurs to limit the germ cell pool and acts as a quality control mechanism. The ubiquitin pathway comprises enzymes that ubiquitinate as well as deubiquitinate target proteins and this pathway is present and functional in germ cells. Germ cells express many proteins involved in water balance and pH control as well as voltage-gated ion channel movement. In the nucleus, proteins undergo epigenetic modifications which include methylation, acetylation, and phosphorylation, with each of these modifications signaling changes in chromatin structure. Germ cells contain specialized transcription complexes that coordinate the differentiation program of spermatogenesis, and there are many male germ cell-specific differences in the components of this machinery. All of the above features of germ cells will be discussed along with the specific proteins/genes and abnormalities to fertility related to each topic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Louis Hermo
- Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Faculty of Medicine, McGill University, 3640 University Street, Montreal, QC Canada H3A 2B2.
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Bocock JP, Carmicle S, Chhotani S, Ruffolo MR, Chu H, Erickson AH. The PA-TM-RING protein RING finger protein 13 is an endosomal integral membrane E3 ubiquitin ligase whose RING finger domain is released to the cytoplasm by proteolysis. FEBS J 2009; 276:1860-77. [PMID: 19292867 DOI: 10.1111/j.1742-4658.2009.06913.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
PA-TM-RING proteins have an N-terminal protease-associated domain, a structure found in numerous proteases and implicated in protein binding, and C-terminal RING finger and PEST domains. Homologous proteins include GRAIL (gene related to anergy in leukocytes), which controls T-cell anergy, and AtRMR1 (receptor homology region-transmembrane domain-RING-H2 motif protein), a plant protein storage vacuole sorting receptor. Another family member, chicken RING zinc finger (C-RZF), was identified as being upregulated in embryonic chicken brain cells grown in the presence of tenascin-C. Despite algorithm predictions that the cDNA encodes a signal peptide and transmembrane domain, the protein was found in the nucleus. We showed that RING finger protein 13 (RNF13), the murine homolog of C-RZF, is a type I integral membrane protein localized in the endosomal/lysosomal system. By quantitative real-time RT-PCR analysis, we demonstrated that expression of RNF13 is increased in adult relative to embryonic mouse tissues and is upregulated in B35 neuroblastoma cells stimulated to undergo neurite outgrowth. We found that RNF13 is very labile, being subject to extensive proteolysis that releases both the protein-associated domain and the RING domain from the membrane. By analyzing microsomes, we showed that the ectodomain is shed into the lumen of vesicles, whereas the C-terminal half, which possesses the RING finger, is released to the cytoplasm. This C-terminal fragment of RNF13 has the ability to mediate ubiquitination. Proteolytic release of RNF13 from a membrane anchor thus provides unique spatial and temporal regulation that has not been previously described for an endosomal E3 ubiquitin ligase.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jeffrey P Bocock
- Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of North Carolina, Chapel Hill, NC 27599, USA
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Abstract
PTK7 regulates planar cell polarity (PCP) signaling during vertebrate neural tube closure and establishment of inner ear hair cell polarity; however, its signaling mechanism is unknown. Here, we demonstrate a new function for PTK7 in Xenopus neural crest migration and use this system in combination with in vitro assays to define the intersection of PTK7 with the non-canonical Wnt signaling pathway that regulates PCP. In vitro, using Xenopus ectodermal explants, we show that PTK7 recruits dishevelled (dsh) to the plasma membrane, a function that is dependent on the PDZ domain of dsh, as well as on the conserved kinase domain of PTK7. Furthermore, endogenous PTK7 is required for frizzled7-mediated dsh localization. Immunoprecipitation experiments confirm that PTK7 can be found in a complex with dsh and frizzled7, suggesting that it cooperates with frizzled to localize dsh. To evaluate the in vivo relevance of the PTK7-mediated dsh localization, we analyzed Xenopus neural crest migration, as loss-of-function of PTK7 inhibits neural crest migration in whole embryos as well as in transplanted neural crest cells. Supporting the in vivo role of PTK7 in the localization of dsh, a PTK7 deletion construct deficient in dsh binding inhibits neural crest migration. Furthermore, the PTK7-mediated membrane localization of a dsh deletion mutant lacking PCP activity inhibits neural crest migration. Thus, PTK7 regulates neural crest migration by recruiting dsh, providing molecular evidence of how PTK7 intersects with the PCP signaling pathway to regulate vertebrate cell movements.
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Affiliation(s)
- Iryna Shnitsar
- Department of Developmental Biochemistry, Center for Molecular Physiology of the Brain (CMPB 37077 Goettingen, Germany
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Mouse RING finger protein Rnf133 is a testis-specific endoplasmic reticulum-associated E3 ubiquitin ligase. Cell Res 2008; 18:800-2. [PMID: 18574499 DOI: 10.1038/cr.2008.73] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
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12
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Abstract
Directing both innate and adaptive immune responses against foreign pathogens with correct timing, location and specificity is a fundamental objective for the immune system. Full activation of CD4+ T cells requires the binding of peptide-MHC complexes coupled with accessory signals provided by the antigen-presenting cell. However, aberrant activation of the T-cell receptor alone in mature T cells can produce a long-lived state of functional unresponsiveness, known as anergy. Recent studies probing both immune signalling pathways and the ubiquitin-proteasome system have helped to refine and elaborate current models for the molecular mechanisms underlying T-cell anergy. Controlling anergy induction and maintenance will be a key component in the future to mitigate unwanted T-cell activation that leads to autoimmune disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- C Garrison Fathman
- Stanford University School of Medicine, Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, CCSR Building, 269 Campus Drive, Room 2225, Stanford, California 94305-5166, USA.
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Falk A, Karlsson TE, Kurdija S, Frisén J, Zupicich J. High-throughput identification of genes promoting neuron formation and lineage choice in mouse embryonic stem cells. Stem Cells 2007; 25:1539-45. [PMID: 17379767 DOI: 10.1634/stemcells.2006-0485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
The potential of embryonic stem cells to differentiate to all cell types makes them an attractive model for development and a potential source of cells for transplantation therapies. Candidate approaches have identified individual genes and proteins that promote the differentiation of embryonic stem cells to desired fates. Here, we describe a rapid large-scale screening strategy for the identification of genes that influence the pluripotency and differentiation of embryonic stem cells to specific fates, and we use this approach to identify genes that induce neuron formation. The power of the strategy is validated by the fact that, of the 15 genes that resulted in the largest increase in neuron number, 8 have previously been implicated in neuronal differentiation or survival, whereas 7 represent novel genes or known genes not previously implicated in neuronal development. This is a simple, fast, and generally applicable strategy for the identification of genes promoting the formation of any specific cell type from embryonic stem cells. Disclosure of potential conflicts of interest is found at the end of this article.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Falk
- Karolinska Institute, Cell and Developmental Biology, Box 285, Stockholm 17177, Sweden
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Abstract
Convergent extension is the primary driving force elongating the anteroposterior body axis. In Xenopus, convergent extension occurs in the dorsal mesoderm and posterior neural ectoderm, and is mediated by similar molecular pathways within these tissues. In this paper, we show that activation of NF-AT, a transcription factor known to modulate multiple signaling events, inhibits convergent extension in the dorsal mesoderm and in the posterior neural ectoderm. This is seen in whole embryos, mesodermal explants and posterior neural explants, solidly implicating a role of NF-AT in convergent extension. In the whole embryo, inhibition of NF-AT reveals a more selective function, affecting only convergent extension in the neural ectoderm. This specific activity was further teased apart using a variety of temporal and spatial approaches. Targeted injections of dominant-negative XNF-ATc3, or dosing over time with the calcineurin inhibitor cyclosporin in neural tube explants or in whole embryos, shows that inhibition of NF-AT signaling blocks neural convergent extension. Consistent with a function in neural convergent extension, we show that XNF-ATc3 is expressed and transcriptionally active within the neural tube. This work identifies XNF-ATc3 as a regulator of neural convergent extension in Xenopus and adds to a short list of molecules involved in this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Annette Borchers
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, CA 94062, USA
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Voigt J, Papalopulu N. A dominant-negative form of the E3 ubiquitin ligase Cullin-1disrupts the correct allocation of cell fate in the neural crest lineage. Development 2006; 133:559-68. [PMID: 16396913 DOI: 10.1242/dev.02201] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
Abstract
Selective protein degradation is an efficient and rapid way of terminating protein activity. Defects in protein degradation are associated with a number of human diseases, including potentially DiGeorge syndrome, which is characterised by abnormal development of the neural crest lineage during embryogenesis. We describe the identification of Xenopus Cullin-1, an E3 ubiquitin ligase, and show that blocking the function of endogenous Cullin-1 leads to pleiotropic defects in development. Notably, there is an increased allocation of cells to a neural crest fate and within this lineage, an increase in melanocytes at the expense of cranial ganglia neurons. Most of the observed effects can be attributed to stabilisation ofβ-catenin, a known target of Cullin-1-mediated degradation from other systems. Indeed, we show that blocking the function of Cullin-1leads to a decrease in ubiquitinated β-catenin and an increase in totalβ-catenin. Our results show that Cullin-1-mediated protein degradation plays an essential role in the correct allocation of neural crest fates during embryogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jana Voigt
- The Wellcome Trust/Cancer Research UK Gurdon Institute, Cambridge
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16
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Chiao E, Leonard J, Dickinson K, Baker JC. High-throughput functional screen of mouse gastrula cDNA libraries reveals new components of endoderm and mesoderm specification. Genome Res 2005; 15:44-53. [PMID: 15632089 PMCID: PMC540274 DOI: 10.1101/gr.2993405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
This study describes a cross-species functional screen of mouse gastrula cDNA libraries for components of endoderm and mesoderm specification. Pools of 96 cDNAs from arrayed mouse gastrula cDNA libraries were transcribed into mRNA and injected into either the presumptive mesoderm or the ectoderm of one-cell Xenopus laevis embryos. Injected embryos were examined at gastrula stage by in situ hybridization with endoderm or mesoderm markers. Using this approach, we screened over 700 pools or approximately 60,000 cDNAs. We identified 17 unique cDNAs that function during mesoderm and/or endoderm specification and 16 that cause general morphology changes. Identified molecules fall into eight general functional groups as follows: cell cycle components (seven), transcription factors (four), extracellular secreted molecules (seven), transmembrane receptors (one), intracellular signaling components (five), microtubule components (two), metabolism molecules (three), and unknown (four). Several of the genes we identified would not have been predicted to be involved in endoderm or mesoderm specification, highlighting the usefulness of nonbiased screening approaches. This includes Otx2, which we show is a downstream target of Xsox17beta. The speed, low cost, and high efficiency of this cross-species screen makes it an ideal method for examining cDNAs from difficult-to-obtain sources. Therefore, this approach complements the current mouse molecular genetics systems and provides a powerful means for the genome-wide examination of mammalian gene function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Chiao
- Department of Genetics, Stanford University Medical School, Stanford, California 94062, USA
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17
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Stone SL, Hauksdóttir H, Troy A, Herschleb J, Kraft E, Callis J. Functional analysis of the RING-type ubiquitin ligase family of Arabidopsis. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY 2005; 137:13-30. [PMID: 15644464 PMCID: PMC548835 DOI: 10.1104/pp.104.052423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 430] [Impact Index Per Article: 22.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2004] [Revised: 11/02/2004] [Accepted: 11/10/2004] [Indexed: 05/17/2023]
Abstract
Approximately 5% of the Arabidopsis (Arabidopsis thaliana) proteome is predicted to be involved in the ubiquitination/26S proteasome pathway. The majority of these predicted proteins have identity to conserved domains found in E3 ligases, of which there are multiple types. The RING-type E3 is characterized by the presence of a cysteine-rich domain that coordinates two zinc atoms. Database searches followed by extensive manual curation identified 469 predicted Arabidopsis RING domain-containing proteins. In addition to the two canonical RING types (C3H2C3 or C3HC4), additional types of modified RING domains, named RING-v, RING-D, RING-S/T, RING-G, and RING-C2, were identified. The modified RINGs differ in either the spacing between metal ligands or have substitutions at one or more of the metal ligand positions. The majority of the canonical and modified RING domain-containing proteins analyzed were active in in vitro ubiquitination assays, catalyzing polyubiquitination with the E2 AtUBC8. To help identity regions of the proteins that may interact with substrates, domain analyses of the amino acids outside the RING domain classified RING proteins into 30 different groups. Several characterized protein-protein interaction domains were identified, as well as additional conserved domains not described previously. The two largest classes of RING proteins contain either no identifiable domain or a transmembrane domain. The presence of such a large and diverse number of RING domain-containing proteins that function as ubiquitin E3 ligases suggests that target-specific proteolysis by these E3 ligases is a complex and important part of cellular regulation in Arabidopsis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sophia L Stone
- Section of Molecular and Cellular Biology, Division of Biological Sciences , University of California, Davis, California 95616, USA
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Nelson BR, Sadhu M, Kasemeier JC, Anderson LW, Lefcort F. Identification of genes regulating sensory neuron genesis and differentiation in the avian dorsal root ganglia. Dev Dyn 2004; 229:618-29. [PMID: 14991717 DOI: 10.1002/dvdy.20030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The dorsal root ganglia (DRG) derive from a population of migrating neural crest cells that coalesce laterally to the neural tube. As the DRG matures, discrete cell types emerge from a pool of differentiating progenitor cells. To identify genes that regulate sensory genesis and differentiation, we have designed screens to identify members from families of known regulatory molecules such as receptor tyrosine kinases, and generated full-length and subtractive cDNA libraries between immature and mature DRG for identifying novel genes not previously implicated in DRG development. Several genes were identified in these analyses that belong to important regulatory gene families. Quantitative PCR confirmed differential expression of candidate cDNAs identified from the subtraction/differential screening. In situ hybridization further validated dynamic expression of several cDNAs identified in our screens. Our results demonstrate the utility of combining specific and general screening approaches for isolating key regulatory genes involved in the genesis and differentiation of discrete cell types and tissues within the classic embryonic chick model system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Branden R Nelson
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Montana State University, Bozeman, Montana 59717, USA
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Abstract
E3 ubiquitin ligases have emerged as key molecular regulators of immune cell function. Three families of proteins with ubiquitin ligase activity have been described (the HECT, RING and U-box proteins), and each may be involved in the regulation of immune responses during infection by targeting specific inhibitory molecules for proteolytic destruction. Several HECT and RING E3 proteins have now also been linked to the induction and maintenance of immune self-tolerance: c-Cbl, Cbl-b, GRAIL, Itch and Nedd4 each negatively regulate T cell growth factor production and proliferation. This review will discuss the relationship between the ubiquitination of select components of the antigen-sensing signaling apparatus in T cells and the development and maintenance of the clonal anergy state.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel L Mueller
- Department of Medicine, Division of Rheumatic and Autoimmune Diseases, Center for Immunology, University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis, Minnesota 55455, USA.
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Lu X, Borchers AGM, Jolicoeur C, Rayburn H, Baker JC, Tessier-Lavigne M. PTK7/CCK-4 is a novel regulator of planar cell polarity in vertebrates. Nature 2004; 430:93-8. [PMID: 15229603 DOI: 10.1038/nature02677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 375] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2004] [Accepted: 05/24/2004] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
In addition to the apical-basal polarity pathway operating in epithelial cells, a planar cell polarity (PCP) pathway establishes polarity within the plane of epithelial tissues and is conserved from Drosophila to mammals. In Drosophila, a 'core' group of PCP genes including frizzled (fz), flamingo/starry night, dishevelled (dsh), Van Gogh/strabismus and prickle, function to regulate wing hair, bristle and ommatidial polarity. In vertebrates, the PCP pathway regulates convergent extension movements and neural tube closure, as well as the orientation of stereociliary bundles of sensory hair cells in the inner ear. Here we show that a mutation in the mouse protein tyrosine kinase 7 (PTK7) gene, which encodes an evolutionarily conserved transmembrane protein with tyrosine kinase homology, disrupts neural tube closure and stereociliary bundle orientation, and shows genetic interactions with a mutation in the mouse Van Gogh homologue vangl2. We also show that PTK7 is dynamically localized during hair cell polarization, and that the Xenopus homologue of PTK7 is required for neural convergent extension and neural tube closure. These results identify PTK7 as a novel regulator of PCP in vertebrates.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Lu
- Department of Biological Sciences, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Myers AP, Corson LB, Rossant J, Baker JC. Characterization of mouse Rsk4 as an inhibitor of fibroblast growth factor-RAS-extracellular signal-regulated kinase signaling. Mol Cell Biol 2004; 24:4255-66. [PMID: 15121846 PMCID: PMC400469 DOI: 10.1128/mcb.24.10.4255-4266.2004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Receptor tyrosine kinase (RTK) signals regulate the specification of a varied array of tissue types by utilizing distinct modules of proteins to elicit diverse effects. The RSK proteins are part of the RTK signal transduction pathway and are thought to relay these signals by acting downstream of extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). In this study we report the identification of ribosomal S6 kinase 4 (Rsk4) as an inhibitor of RTK signals. Among the RSK proteins, RTK inhibition is specific to RSK4 and, in accordance, is dependent upon a region of the RSK4 protein that is divergent from other RSK family members. We demonstrate that Rsk4 inhibits the transcriptional activation of specific targets of RTK signaling as well as the activation of ERK. Developmentally, Rsk4 is expressed in extraembryonic tissue, where RTK signals are known to have critical roles. Further examination of Rsk4 expression in the extraembryonic tissues demonstrates that its expression is inversely correlated with the presence of activated ERK 1/2. These studies demonstrate a new and divergent function for RSK4 and support a role for RSK proteins in the specification of RTK signals during early mouse development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Pomrehn Myers
- Department of Genetics, Stanford Medical School, Stanford, California 94305, USA
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Artero R, Furlong EE, Beckett K, Scott MP, Baylies M. Notch and Ras signaling pathway effector genes expressed in fusion competent and founder cells during Drosophila myogenesis. Development 2003; 130:6257-72. [PMID: 14602676 DOI: 10.1242/dev.00843] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Drosophila muscles originate from the fusion of two types of myoblasts, founder cells (FCs) and fusion-competent myoblasts (FCMs). To better understand muscle diversity and morphogenesis, we performed a large-scale gene expression analysis to identify genes differentially expressed in FCs and FCMs. We employed embryos derived from Toll10b mutants to obtain primarily muscle-forming mesoderm, and expressed activated forms of Ras or Notch to induce FC or FCM fate, respectively. The transcripts present in embryos of each genotype were compared by hybridization to cDNA microarrays. Among the 83 genes differentially expressed, we found genes known to be enriched in FCs or FCMs, such as heartless or hibris, previously characterized genes with unknown roles in muscle development, and predicted genes of unknown function. Our studies of newly identified genes revealed new patterns of gene expression restricted to one of the two types of myoblasts, and also striking muscle phenotypes. Whereas genes such as phyllopod play a crucial role during specification of particular muscles, others such as tartan are necessary for normal muscle morphogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ruben Artero
- Developmental Biology Program, Sloan-Kettering Institute, Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, 1275 York Avenue, New York, NY 10021, USA
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Anandasabapathy N, Ford GS, Bloom D, Holness C, Paragas V, Seroogy C, Skrenta H, Hollenhorst M, Fathman CG, Soares L. GRAIL: an E3 ubiquitin ligase that inhibits cytokine gene transcription is expressed in anergic CD4+ T cells. Immunity 2003; 18:535-47. [PMID: 12705856 DOI: 10.1016/s1074-7613(03)00084-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 232] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
T cell anergy may serve to limit autoreactive T cell responses. We examined early changes in gene expression after antigen-TCR signaling in the presence (activation) or absence (anergy) of B7 costimulation. Induced expression of GRAIL (gene related to anergy in lymphocytes) was observed in anergic CD4(+) T cells. GRAIL is a type I transmembrane protein that localizes to the endocytic pathway and bears homology to RING zinc-finger proteins. Ubiquitination studies in vitro support GRAIL function as an E3 ubiquitin ligase. Expression of GRAIL in retrovirally transduced T cell hybridomas dramatically limits activation-induced IL-2 and IL-4 production. Additional studies suggest that GRAIL E3 ubiquitin ligase activity and intact endocytic trafficking are critical for cytokine transcriptional regulation. Expression of GRAIL after an anergizing stimulus may result in ubiquitin-mediated regulation of proteins essential for mitogenic cytokine expression, thus positioning GRAIL as a key player in the induction of the anergic phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niroshana Anandasabapathy
- Department of Medicine, Division of Immunology and Rheumatology, Stanford University School of Medicine, CA 94305, USA
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