Agonist-dependent immobilization of chimeric bombesin/GRP receptors: dependence on c-Src activity and dissociation from internalization

Oxygen depletion speeds and simplifies diffusion in HeLa cells

Many cell types undergo a hypoxic response in the presence of low oxygen, which can lead to transcriptional, metabolic, and structural changes within the cell. Many biophysical studies to probe the localization and dynamics of single fluorescently labeled molecules in live cells either require or benefit from low-oxygen conditions. In this study, we examine how low-oxygen conditions alter the mobility of a series of plasma membrane proteins with a range of anchoring motifs in HeLa cells at 37°C. Under high-oxygen conditions, diffusion of all proteins is heterogeneous and confined. When oxygen is reduced with an enzymatic oxygen-scavenging system for ≥ 15 min, diffusion rates increase by > 2-fold, motion becomes unconfined on the timescales and distance scales investigated, and distributions of diffusion coefficients are remarkably consistent with those expected from Brownian motion. More subtle changes in protein mobility are observed in several other laboratory cell lines examined under both high- and low-oxygen conditions. Morphological changes and actin remodeling are observed in HeLa cells placed in a low-oxygen environment for 30 min, but changes are less apparent in the other cell types investigated. This suggests that changes in actin structure are responsible for increased diffusion in hypoxic HeLa cells, although superresolution localization measurements in chemically fixed cells indicate that membrane proteins do not colocalize with F-actin under either experimental condition. These studies emphasize the importance of controls in single-molecule imaging measurements, and indicate that acute response to low oxygen in HeLa cells leads to dramatic changes in plasma membrane structure. It is possible that these changes are either a cause or consequence of phenotypic changes in solid tumor cells associated with increased drug resistance and malignancy.

Long and short distance movements of β(2)-adrenoceptor in cell membrane assessed by photoconvertible fluorescent protein dendra2-β(2)-adrenoceptor fusion

Local movements of receptors in the plasma membrane have been extensively studied, as it is generally believed that the dynamics of membrane distribution of receptors regulate their functions. However, the properties of large-scale (>5μm) receptor movements in the membrane are relatively obscure. In the present study, we addressed the question as to whether the large-scale movement of receptor in the plasma membrane at the whole cell level can be explained quantitatively by its local diffusive properties. We used HEK 293 cells transfected with human β2-adrenoceptor fused to photoconvertible fluorescent protein dendra2 as a model system; and found that 1) functional integrity of the dendra2-tagged receptor remains apparently intact; 2) in a mesoscopic scale (~4μm), ~90% of the receptors are mobile on average, and receptor influx to, and out-flux from a membrane area can be symmetrically explained by a diffusion-like process with an effective diffusion coefficient of ~0.1μm(2)/s; 3) these mobility parameters are not affected by the activity state of the receptor (assessed by using constitutively active receptor mutants); 4) in the macroscopic scale (4-40μm), although a slowly diffusing fraction of receptors (with D<0.01μm(2)/s) is identifiable in some cases, the movement of the predominant fraction is perfectly explained by the same effective diffusion process observed in the mesoscopic scale, suggesting that the large scale structure of the cell membrane as felt by the receptor is apparently homogeneous in terms of its mesoscopic properties. We also showed that intracellular compartments and plasma membrane are kinetically connected even at steady-state.

Functional membrane diffusion of G-protein coupled receptors

G-protein-coupled receptor function involves interactions between the receptor, G-proteins and effectors in the cell plasma membrane. The main biochemical processes have been individually identified but the mechanisms governing the successive protein-protein interactions of this complex multi-molecular machinery have yet to be established. We discuss advances in understanding the functional dynamics of the receptor resulting from diffusion measurements, and in the context of the plasma membrane organization.

Rapid hop diffusion of a G-protein-coupled receptor in the plasma membrane as revealed by single-molecule techniques

Diffusion of a G-protein coupled receptor, mu-opioid receptor (muOR), in the plasma membrane was tracked by single-fluorescent molecule video imaging and high-speed single-particle tracking. At variance with a previous publication, where gold-tagged muOR was found to be totally confined within a domain, which in turn underwent very slow diffusion itself, we found that muOR undergoes rapid hop diffusion over membrane compartments (210-nm and 730-nm nested double compartments in the case of normal rat kidney cell line), which are likely delimited by the actin-based membrane-skeleton "fence or corrals" and its associated transmembrane protein "pickets", at a rate comparable to that for transferrin receptor (every 45 and 760 ms on average, respectively), suggesting that the fence and picket models may also be applicable to G-protein coupled receptors. Further, we found that strong confinement of gold-labeled muOR could be induced by the prolonged on-ice preincubation of the gold probe with the cells, showing that this procedure should be avoided in future single-particle tracking experiments. Based on the dense, long trajectories of muOR obtained by high-speed single-particle tracking, the membrane compartments apposed and adjoined to each other could be defined that are delimited by rather straight boundaries, consistent with the involvement of actin filaments in membrane compartmentalization.

Green fluorescent proteins in receptor research: An emerging tool for drug discovery

In the last five years, green fluorescent protein (GFP) has emerged from being a mere curiosity to become a reliable tool for molecular pharmacological research. GFP produces an intense and stable green fluorescence noncatalytically by absorbing blue light maximally at 395 nm and emitting green light with a peak at 509 nm. It consists of 238 amino acids and its molecular mass is 27-30 kDa. GFP fluorescence occurs without cofactors and this property allows GFP fluorescence to be utilised in nonnative organisms, wherein it can be used as a reporter. This use of GFP permits real-time analysis of receptor dynamics. The emitted fluorescence can be used as a nontoxic marker and detected using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS), thus avoiding any staining procedure, expensive mRNA analysis or hazardous radiolabeled binding assays. The potential value of GFP has also been recognized in orphan receptor research, where various GFP-tagged therapeutic proteins have been constructed in an attempt to identify the endogenous ligand(s). These chimeric proteins have been used to determine the site and time course of receptor expression and to relate receptor dynamics with therapeutic outcome. The preparation of new GFP constructs for identifying germ layer cells (endodermal, ectodermal, and mesodermal), as well as neuronal, haematopoietic, endothelial, and cartilage cells, has provided a useful battery of tissue/receptor-specific screening assays for new chemical entities. Genetically engineered cells with GFP expression have provided a valuable tool for automated analysis, and can be adapted for high-throughput systems. GFP is being increasingly utilised for the study of receptor dynamics, where, having already proved beneficial, it will likely continue to contribute towards the search for new classes of drugs, as well as to "de-orphaning" orphan receptors.

Dynamic Confinement of NK2 Receptors in the Plasma Membrane

A functional fluorescent neurokinin NK2 receptor, EGFP-NK2, was previously used to follow, by fluorescence resonance energy transfer measurements in living cells, the binding of its fluorescently labeled agonist, bodipy-neurokinin A (NKA). Local agonist application suggested that the activation and desensitization of the NK2 receptors were compartmentalized at the level of the plasma membrane. In this study, fluorescence recovery after photobleaching experiments are carried out at variable observation radius (vrFRAP) to probe EGFP-NK2 receptor mobility and confinement. Experiments are carried out at 20 degrees C to maintain the number of receptors constant at the cell surface during recordings. In the absence of agonist, 35% EGFP-NK2 receptors diffuse within domains of 420 +/- 80 nm in radius with the remaining 65% of receptors able to diffuse with a long range lateral diffusion coefficient between the domains. When cells are incubated with a saturating concentration of NKA, 30% EGFP-NK2 receptors become immobilized in small domains characterized by a radius equal to 170 +/- 50 nm. Biochemical experiments show that the confinement of EGFP-NK2 receptor is not due to its association with rafts at any given time. Colocalization of the receptor with beta-arrestin and transferrin supports that the small domains, containing 30% of activated EGFP-NK2, correspond to clathrin-coated pre-pits. The similar amount of confined EGFP-NK2 receptors found before and after activation (30-35%) is discussed in term of putative transient interactions of the receptors with preexisting scaffolds of signaling molecules.

Exclusion of lipid rafts and decreased mobility of CD94/NKG2A receptors at the inhibitory NK cell synapse

CD94/NKG2A is an inhibitory receptor expressed by most human natural killer (NK) cells and a subset of T cells that recognizes human leukocyte antigen E (HLA-E) on potential target cells. To elucidate the cell surface dynamics of CD94/NKG2A receptors, we have expressed CD94/NKG2A-EGFP receptors in the rat basophilic leukemia (RBL) cell line. Photobleaching experiments revealed that CD94/NKG2A-EGFP receptors move freely within the plasma membrane and accumulate at the site of contact with ligand. The enriched CD94/NKG2A-EGFP is markedly less mobile than the nonligated receptor. We observed that not only are lipid rafts not required for receptor polarization, they are excluded from the site of receptor contact with the ligand. Furthermore, the lipid raft patches normally observed at the sites where FcepsilonR1 activation receptors are cross-linked were not observed when CD94/NKG2A was coengaged along with the activation receptor. These results suggest that immobilization of the CD94/NKG2A receptors at ligation sites not only promote sustenance of the inhibitory signal, but by lipid rafts exclusion prevent formation of activation signaling complexes.