Counting in sign language

Deafness and early language deprivation influence arithmetic performances

It has been consistently reported that deaf individuals experience mathematical difficulties compared to their hearing peers. However, the idea that deafness and early language deprivation might differently affect verbal (i.e., multiplication) vs. visuospatial (i.e., subtraction) arithmetic performances is still under debate. In the present paper, three groups of 21 adults (i.e., deaf signers, hearing signers, and hearing controls) were therefore asked to perform, as fast and as accurately as possible, subtraction and multiplication operations. No significant group effect was found for accuracy performances. However, reaction time results demonstrated that the deaf group performed both arithmetic operations slower than the hearing groups. This group difference was even more pronounced for multiplication problems than for subtraction problems. Weaker language-based phonological representations for retrieving multiplication facts, and sensitivity to interference are two hypotheses discussed to explain the observed dissociation.

Small number enumeration processes of deaf or hard-of-hearing students: A study using eye tracking and artificial intelligence

Students who are deaf or hard-of-hearing (DHH) often show significant difficulties in learning mathematics. Previous studies have reported that students who are DHH lag several years behind in their mathematical development compared to hearing students. As possible reasons, limited learning opportunities due to a lesser incidental exposure to numerical ideas, delays in language and speech development, and further idiosyncratic difficulties of students who are DHH are discussed; however, early mathematical skills and their role in mathematical difficulties of students who are DHH are not explored sufficiently. In this study, we investigate whether students who are DHH differ from hearing students in their ability to enumerate small sets (1–9)—an ability that is associated with mathematical difficulties and their emergence. Based on a study with N = 63 who are DHH and N = 164 hearing students from third to fifth grade attempting 36 tasks, we used eye tracking, the recording of students' eye movements, to qualitatively investigate student enumeration processes. To reduce the effort of qualitative analysis of around 8,000 student enumeration processes (227 students x 36 tasks), we used Artificial Intelligence, in particular, a clustering algorithm, to identify student enumeration processes from the heatmaps of student gaze distributions. Based on the clustering, we found that gaze distributions of students who are DHH and students with normal hearing differed significantly on a group level, indicating differences in enumeration processes, with students who are DHH using advantageous processes (e.g., enumeration “at a glance”) more often than hearing students. The results indicate that students who are DHH do not lag behind in small number enumeration as compared to hearing students but, rather, appear to perform better than their hearing peers in small number enumeration processes, as well as when conceptual knowledge about the part-whole relationship is involved. Our study suggests that the mathematical difficulties of students who are DHH are not related to difficulties in the small number enumeration, which offers interesting perspectives for further research.

Environmental influences on mathematics performance in early childhood

Math skills relate to lifelong career, health, and financial outcomes. Individuals' own cognitive abilities predict math performance and there is growing recognition that environmental influences including differences in culture and variability in math engagement also impact math skills. In this Review, we summarize evidence indicating that differences between languages, exposure to math-focused language, socioeconomic status, attitudes and beliefs about math, and engagement with math activities influence young children's math performance. These influences play out at the community and individual level. However, research on the role of these environmental influences for foundational number skills, including understanding of number words, is limited. Future research is needed to understand individual differences in the development of early emerging math skills such as number word skills, examining to what extent different types of environmental input are necessary and how children's cognitive abilities shape the impact of environmental input.

Impact of deafness on numerical tasks implying visuospatial and verbal processes

The literature suggests that deaf individuals lag behind their hearing peers in terms of mathematical abilities. However, it is still unknown how unique sensorimotor experiences, like deafness, might shape number-space interactions. We still do not know either the spatial frame of reference deaf individuals use to map numbers onto space in different numerical tasks. To examine these issues, deaf, hearing signer and hearing control adults were asked to perform a number comparison and a parity judgment task with the hands uncrossed and crossed over the body midline. Deafness appears to selectively affect the performance of the numerical task relying on verbal processes while keeping intact the task relying on visuospatial processes. Indeed, while a classic SNARC effect was found in all groups and in both hand postures of the number comparison task, deaf adults did not show the SNARC effect in both hand postures of the parity judgment task. These results are discussed in light of the spatial component characterizing the counting system used in sign language.

The School Career of Children With Hearing Loss in Different Primary Educational Settings-A Large Longitudinal Nationwide Study

Children with hearing loss (HL) are at risk for a lower educational achievement. This longitudinal study compared the school career of a nationwide Dutch cohort with and without HL based on descriptive data of the governmental authority Statistics Netherlands. From 2008 to 2018, 3,367,129 children, of whom 1,193 used cochlear implants (CIs) and 8,874 used hearing aids (HAs), were attending primary and/or secondary education. Sixty-one percent of children with HL attended mainstream and 31% special primary education. Compared to mainstreamed pupils without HL, mainstreamed pupils with HL achieved lower levels for language and mathematics in primary education but eventually attended comparable types of secondary education. Children with HL attending special primary education attained lower types of secondary education compared to mainstreamed peers with and without HL. These findings suggest that future educational (and as a result professional) attainment of a child with HL depends on the type of primary educational setting.

Emergent Morphology in Child Homesign: Evidence from Number Language

Human languages, signed and spoken, can be characterized by the structural patterns they use to associate communicative forms with meanings. One such pattern is paradigmatic morphology, where complex words are built from the systematic use and re-use of sub-lexical units. Here, we provide evidence of emergent paradigmatic morphology akin to number inflection in a communication system developed without input from a conventional language, homesign. We study the communication systems of four deaf child homesigners (mean age 8;02). Although these idiosyncratic systems vary from one another, we nevertheless find that all four children use handshape and movement devices productively to express cardinal and non-cardinal number information, and that their number expressions are consistent in both form and meaning. Our study shows, for the first time, that all four homesigners not only incorporate number devices into representational devices used as predicates , but also into gestures functioning as nominals, including deictic gestures. In other words, the homesigners express number by systematically combining and re-combining additive markers for number (qua inflectional morphemes) with representational and deictic gestures (qua bases). The creation of new, complex forms with predictable meanings across gesture types and linguistic functions constitutes evidence for an inflectional morphological paradigm in homesign and expands our understanding of the structural patterns of language that are, and are not, dependent on linguistic input.

Tactile Enumeration and Embodied Numerosity Among the Deaf

Representations of the fingers are embodied in our cognition and influence performance in enumeration tasks. Among deaf signers, the fingers also serve as a tool for communication in sign language. Previous studies in normal hearing (NH) participants showed effects of embodiment (i.e., embodied numerosity) on tactile enumeration using the fingers of one hand. In this research, we examined the influence of extensive visuo-manual use on tactile enumeration among the deaf. We carried out four enumeration task experiments, using 1-5 stimuli, on a profoundly deaf group (n = 16) and a matching NH group (n = 15): (a) tactile enumeration using one hand, (b) tactile enumeration using two hands, (c) visual enumeration of finger signs, and (d) visual enumeration of dots. In the tactile tasks, we found salient embodied effects in the deaf group compared to the NH group. In the visual enumeration of finger signs task, we controlled the meanings of the stimuli presentation type (e.g., finger-counting habit, fingerspelled letters, both or neither). Interestingly, when comparing fingerspelled letters to neutrals (i.e., not letters or numerical finger-counting signs), an inhibition pattern was observed among the deaf. The findings uncover the influence of rich visuo-manual experiences and language on embodied representations. In addition, we propose that these influences can partially account for the lag in mathematical competencies in the deaf compared to NH peers. Lastly, we further discuss how our findings support a contemporary model for mental numerical representations and finger-counting habits.

Is thirty-two three tens and two ones? The embedded structure of cardinal numbers

The acquisition and representation of natural numbers have been a central topic in cognitive science. However, a key question in this topic about how humans acquire the capacity to understand that numbers make 'infinite use of finite means' (or that numbers are generative) has been left unanswered. While previous theories rely on the idea of the successor principle, we propose an alternative hypothesis that children's understanding of the syntactic rules for building complex numerals-or numerical syntax-is a crucial foundation for the acquisition of number concepts. In two independent studies, we assessed children's understanding of numerical syntax by probing their knowledge about the embedded structure of cardinal numbers using a novel task called Give-a-number Base-10 (Give-N10). In Give-N10, children were asked to give a large number of items (e.g., 32 items) from a pool that is organized in sets of ten items. Children's knowledge about the embedded structure of numbers (e.g., knowing that thirty-two items are composed of three tens and two ones) was assessed from their ability to use those sets. Study 1 tested English-speaking 4- to 10-year-olds and revealed that children's understanding of the embedded structure of numbers emerges relatively late in development (several months into kindergarten), beyond when they are capable of making a semantic induction over a local sequence of numbers. Moreover, performance in Give-N10 was predicted by other task measures that assessed children's knowledge about the syntactic rules that govern numerals (such as counting fluency), demonstrating the validity of the measure. In Study 2, this association was tested again in monolingual Korean kindergarteners (5-6 years), as we aimed to test the same effect in a language with a highly regular numeral system. It replicated the association between Give-N10 performance and counting fluency, and it also demonstrated that Korean-speaking children understand the embedded structure of cardinal numbers earlier in the acquisition path than English-speaking peers, suggesting that regularity in numerical syntax facilitates the acquisition of generative properties of numbers. Based on these observations and our theoretical analysis of the literature, we propose that the syntax for building complex numerals, not the successor principle, represents a structural platform for numerical thinking in young children.

Mathematical knowledge and language in deaf students: The relationship between the recitation of a numerical sequence and Brazilian Sign Language proficiency

Abstract The present study investigated recitation skills, constitutive of the number concept, and their relationship with language skills in the Brazilian Sign Language. Different levels of numerical sequence recitation were identified in 1st to 3rd grade deaf students attending a bilingual Elementary School (Brazilian Portuguese and Brazilian Sign Language), as well as the association between numerical recitation and schooling. The ability to enumerate was associated with specific levels of receptive and expressive language in Brazilian Sign Language.

Reading instead of reasoning? Predictors of arithmetic skills in children with cochlear implants

OBJECTIVES

The aim of the present study was to evaluate whether the arithmetic achievement of children with cochlear implants (CI) was lower or comparable to that of their normal hearing peers and to identify predictors of arithmetic achievement in children with CI. In particular we related the arithmetic achievement of children with CI to nonverbal IQ, reading skills and hearing variables.

METHODS

23 children with CI (onset of hearing loss in the first 24 months, cochlear implantation in the first 60 months of life, atleast 3 years of hearing experience with the first CI) and 23 normal hearing peers matched by age, gender, and social background participated in this case control study. All attended grades two to four in primary schools. To assess their arithmetic achievement, all children completed the "Arithmetic Operations" part of the "Heidelberger Rechentest" (HRT), a German arithmetic test. To assess reading skills and nonverbal intelligence as potential predictors of arithmetic achievement, all children completed the "Salzburger Lesetest" (SLS), a German reading screening, and the Culture Fair Intelligence Test (CFIT), a nonverbal intelligence test.

RESULTS

Children with CI did not differ significantly from hearing children in their arithmetic achievement. Correlation and regression analyses revealed that in children with CI, arithmetic achievement was significantly (positively) related to reading skills, but not to nonverbal IQ. Reading skills and nonverbal IQ were not related to each other. In normal hearing children, arithmetic achievement was significantly (positively) related to nonverbal IQ, but not to reading skills. Reading skills and nonverbal IQ were positively correlated. Hearing variables were not related to arithmetic achievement.

CONCLUSIONS

Children with CI do not show lower performance in non-verbal arithmetic tasks, compared to normal hearing peers.

Uma intervenção em contagem com duas crianças surdas

Este estudo de caso investigou se crianças surdas, filhas de pais surdos, estão em vantagem para aprender conceitos numéricos comparados com crianças surdas, filhas de pais ouvintes. Comparamos a resposta à intervenção de duas crianças de 6 anos de idade: um menino sinalizante nativo e uma menina que entrou em contato com a língua de sinais a partir dos 2 anos de idade. Ambos participaram de uma intervenção breve projetada para melhorar a compreensão da composição aditiva e o uso de procedimentos econômicos de contagem na resolução de problemas. Contrariamente às nossas expectativas, as crianças alcançaram níveis semelhantes no uso de procedimentos de contagem, na compreensão aditiva do número e também no aumento do campo numérico.

Habilidades matemáticas iniciais em crianças surdas e ouvintes

O presente estudo tem como objetivo investigar o conhecimento de procedimentos e conceitos matemáticos em crianças surdas da educação infantil. Até o momento, existe uma grande escassez de estudos sobre o desenvolvimento de conceitos e procedimentos matemáticos em crianças surdas de idade pré-escolar. Os poucos trabalhos existentes sugerem que as crianças surdas têm dificuldades em aprender a sequência numérica. Contudo, não há qualquer evidência conclusiva a respeito das causas desta dificuldade. Os resultados deste estudo revelaram que as diferenças de desempenho entre crianças surdas e ouvintes estão relacionadas com a demanda linguística.

The Math Gap: a description of the mathematics performance of preschool-aged deaf/hard-of-hearing children

Over decades and across grade levels, deaf/hard-of-hearing (d/hh) student performance in mathematics has shown a gap in achievement. It is unclear, however, exactly when this gap begins to emerge and in what areas. This study describes preschool d/hh children's knowledge of early mathematics concepts. Both standardized and nonstandardized measures were used to assess understanding in number, geometry, measurement, problem solving, and patterns, reasoning and algebra. Results present strong evidence that d/hh students' difficulty in mathematics may begin prior to the start of formal schooling. Findings also show areas of strength (geometry) and weakness (problem solving and measurement) for these children. Evidence of poor foundational performance may relate to later academic achievement.

An intervention for early mathematical success: outcomes from the hybrid version of the Building Math Readiness Parents as Partners (MRPP) project

The Building Math Readiness in Young Deaf/Hard-of- Hearing Children: Parents as Partners (MRPP) Project works with parents to increase the understanding of foundational mathematics concepts in their preschool deaf/hard-of-hearing (d/hh) children in preparation for formal mathematics education. A multiple-case/single-unit case study incorporating descriptive statistics and grounded theory analysis was conducted on the hybrid version of the intervention. Results showed productive changes in parental behaviors indicating a possible positive effect on parent knowledge, recognition, and mediation of early matthematics concepts with their young d/hh children.

Barely started and already left behind: a descriptive analysis of the mathematics ability demonstrated by young deaf children

This study examined young deaf children's early informal/formal mathematical knowledge as measured by the Test of Early Mathematics Ability (TEMA-3). Findings from this study suggest that prior to the onset of formal schooling, young deaf children might already demonstrate evidence of academic delays. Of these 28 participants (4-6 years of age), for whom data were analyzed, none received a score on the TEMA-3, indicating above-"average" ability according to normative ranking. More than half of participants received scores substantially below average with 11 participants receiving scores a year or more behind normative age-equivalent scores. Upon more focused analysis, specific areas of difficulty were found to include word/story problems, skip counting (i.e., counting by twos, threes, etc.), number comparisons, the reading/writing of two to three digit numbers, and addition/subtraction number facts. A qualitative analysis of the answers participants gave and the behaviors they demonstrated while answering the test items was conducted and revealed possible explanations for why specific test items may have been challenging. Implications of findings for parents, early interventionists, and teachers of young deaf children are discussed.

How Humans Count: Numerosity and the Parietal Cortex

Numerosity (the number of objects in a set), like color or movement, is a basic property of the environment. Animal and human brains have been endowed by evolution by mechanisms based on parietal circuitry for representing numerosity in an highly abstract, although approximate fashion. These mechanisms are functional at a very early age in humans and spontaneously deployed in the wild by animals of different species. The recent years have witnessed terrific advances in unveiling the neural code(s) underlying numerosity representations and showing similarities as well as differences across species. In humans, during development, with the introduction of symbols for numbers and the implementation of the counting routines, the parietal system undergoes profound (yet still largely mysterious) modifications, such that the neural machinery previously evolved to represent approximate numerosity gets partially “recycled” to support the representation of exact number.

Family mediation of mathematically based concepts while engaged in a problem-solving activity with their young deaf children

This qualitative study examined the relationship between young deaf children's level of mathematics ability ("high" and "low," as defined by test score on the Test of Early Mathematics Ability-3) and opportunities available for the construction of early mathematics knowledge during a problem-solving task implemented by their parents. Findings indicate that the manner in which the mathematically based concepts (number/counting, quantity, time/sequence, and categorization) were incorporated into the activity was more meaningful for children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical ability. In addition, children who demonstrated high levels of mathematical ability experienced a more purposeful use of mediation during activity implementation; however, overall use of mediated learning experience was limited for children from both ability groups.

The hands have it: number representations in adult deaf signers

This study examines a wide range of numerical representations (i.e., quantity, knowledge of multiplication facts, and use of parity information) in adult deaf signers. We introduce a modified version of the number bisection task, with sequential stimulus presentation, which allows for a systematic examination of mathematical skills in deaf individuals in different modalities (number signs in streaming video vs. Arabic digit displays). Reaction times and accuracy measures indicated that deaf signers make use of several representations simultaneously when bisecting number triplets, paralleling earlier findings in hearing individuals. Furthermore, some differences were obtained between the 2 display modalities, with effects being less prominent in the Arabic digit mode, suggesting that mathematical abilities in deaf signers should be assessed in their native sign language.