Basal nonselective cation permeability in rat cardiac microvascular endothelial cells

An automated planar patch-clamp approach to measure the membrane potential and resting membrane currents in a human cerebrovascular endothelial cell line

BACKGROUND

The conventional "whole-cell patch-clamp" recording technique is widely used to measure the resting membrane potential (VM) and to dissect the underlying membrane ionic conductances in isolated vascular endothelial cells.

NEW METHOD

Herein, we assessed whether the automated patch-clamp (APC) technology, which replaces the traditional patch-pipette with a planar substrate to permit researchers lacking formal training in electrophysiology to generate large amounts of data in a relatively short time, can be used to characterize the bioelectrical activity of vascular endothelial cells. We assessed whether the Port-a-Patch planar patch-clamp system, which is regarded as the smallest electrophysiological rig available on the market, can be used to measure the VM and resting membrane currents in the human cerebrovascular endothelial cell line, hCMEC/D3.

COMPARISON WITH EXISTING METHODS

We demonstrated that the Port-a-Patch planar patch-clamp system provides the same values of the resting VM as those provided by the conventional patch-clamp technique. Furthermore, the APC technology provides preliminary data demonstrating that the resting VM of hCMEC/D3 cells is primarily contributed by Cl- and Na+, as demonstrated with the patch-clamp technique for many other endothelial cell types.

CONCLUSIONS

The Port-a-Patch planar patch-clamp system can be successfully used to measure the resting VM and the underlying membrane ionic conductances in hCMEC/D3 cells. We envisage that this easy-to-use APC system could also be extremely useful for the investigation of the membrane currents that can be activated by chemical, thermal, optical, and mechanical stimuli in this cell line as well as in other types of isolated vascular endothelial cells.

Allyl Isothiocianate Induces Ca2+ Signals and Nitric Oxide Release by Inducing Reactive Oxygen Species Production in the Human Cerebrovascular Endothelial Cell Line hCMEC/D3

Nitric oxide (NO) represents a crucial mediator to regulate cerebral blood flow (CBF) in the human brain both under basal conditions and in response to somatosensory stimulation. An increase in intracellular Ca2+ concentrations ([Ca2+]i) stimulates the endothelial NO synthase to produce NO in human cerebrovascular endothelial cells. Therefore, targeting the endothelial ion channel machinery could represent a promising strategy to rescue endothelial NO signalling in traumatic brain injury and neurodegenerative disorders. Allyl isothiocyanate (AITC), a major active constituent of cruciferous vegetables, was found to increase CBF in non-human preclinical models, but it is still unknown whether it stimulates NO release in human brain capillary endothelial cells. In the present investigation, we showed that AITC evoked a Ca2+-dependent NO release in the human cerebrovascular endothelial cell line, hCMEC/D3. The Ca2+ response to AITC was shaped by both intra- and extracellular Ca2+ sources, although it was insensitive to the pharmacological blockade of transient receptor potential ankyrin 1, which is regarded to be among the main molecular targets of AITC. In accord, AITC failed to induce transmembrane currents or to elicit membrane hyperpolarization, although NS309, a selective opener of the small- and intermediate-conductance Ca2+-activated K+ channels, induced a significant membrane hyperpolarization. The AITC-evoked Ca2+ signal was triggered by the production of cytosolic, but not mitochondrial, reactive oxygen species (ROS), and was supported by store-operated Ca2+ entry (SOCE). Conversely, the Ca2+ response to AITC did not require Ca2+ mobilization from the endoplasmic reticulum, lysosomes or mitochondria. However, pharmacological manipulation revealed that AITC-dependent ROS generation inhibited plasma membrane Ca2+-ATPase (PMCA) activity, thereby attenuating Ca2+ removal across the plasma membrane and resulting in a sustained increase in [Ca2+]i. In accord, the AITC-evoked NO release was driven by ROS generation and required ROS-dependent inhibition of PMCA activity. These data suggest that AITC could be exploited to restore NO signalling and restore CBF in brain disorders that feature neurovascular dysfunction.

Endothelial response boosted by platelet lysate: the involvement of calcium toolkit

Wound repair is a dynamic process during which crucial signaling pathways are regulated by growth factors and cytokines released by several kinds of cells directly involved in the healing process. However, the limited applications and heterogeneous clinical results of single growth factors in wound healing encouraged the use of a mixture of bioactive molecules such as platelet derivatives for best results in wound repair. An interesting platelet derivative, obtained from blood samples, is platelet lysate (PL), which has shown potential clinical application. PL is obtained from freezing and thawing of platelet-enriched blood samples. Intracellular calcium (Ca²⁺) signals play a central role in the control of endothelial cell survival, proliferation, motility, and differentiation. We investigated the role of Ca²⁺ signaling in the PL-driven endothelial healing process. In our experiments, the functional significance of Ca²⁺ signaling machinery was highlighted performing the scratch wound assay in presence of different inhibitors or specific RNAi. We also pointed out that the PL-induced generation of intracellular ROS (reactive oxygen species) via NOX4 (NADPH oxidase 4) is necessary for the activation of TRPM2 and the resulting Ca²⁺ entry from the extracellular space. This is the first report of the mechanism of wound repair in an endothelial cell model boosted by the PL-induced regulation of [Ca²⁺]_i.

Endothelial Transient Receptor Potential Channels and Vascular Remodeling: Extracellular Ca2 + Entry for Angiogenesis, Arteriogenesis and Vasculogenesis

Vasculogenesis, angiogenesis and arteriogenesis represent three crucial mechanisms involved in the formation and maintenance of the vascular network in embryonal and post-natal life. It has long been known that endothelial Ca²⁺ signals are key players in vascular remodeling; indeed, multiple pro-angiogenic factors, including vascular endothelial growth factor, regulate endothelial cell fate through an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channel consist in a superfamily of non-selective cation channels that are widely expressed within vascular endothelial cells. In addition, TRP channels are present in the two main endothelial progenitor cell (EPC) populations, i.e., myeloid angiogenic cells (MACs) and endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs). TRP channels are polymodal channels that can assemble in homo- and heteromeric complexes and may be sensitive to both pro-angiogenic cues and subtle changes in local microenvironment. These features render TRP channels the most versatile Ca²⁺ entry pathway in vascular endothelial cells and in EPCs. Herein, we describe how endothelial TRP channels stimulate vascular remodeling by promoting angiogenesis, arteriogenesis and vasculogenesis through the integration of multiple environmental, e.g., extracellular growth factors and chemokines, and intracellular, e.g., reactive oxygen species, a decrease in Mg²⁺ levels, or hypercholesterolemia, stimuli. In addition, we illustrate how endothelial TRP channels induce neovascularization in response to synthetic agonists and small molecule drugs. We focus the attention on TRPC1, TRPC3, TRPC4, TRPC5, TRPC6, TRPV1, TRPV4, TRPM2, TRPM4, TRPM7, TRPA1, that were shown to be involved in angiogenesis, arteriogenesis and vasculogenesis. Finally, we discuss the role of endothelial TRP channels in aberrant tumor vascularization by focusing on TRPC1, TRPC3, TRPV2, TRPV4, TRPM8, and TRPA1. These observations suggest that endothelial TRP channels represent potential therapeutic targets in multiple disorders featured by abnormal vascularization, including cancer, ischemic disorders, retinal degeneration and neurodegeneration.

Calcium Signaling in Endothelial Colony Forming Cells in Health and Disease

Endothelial colony forming cells (ECFCs) represent the only known truly endothelial precursors. ECFCs are released in peripheral circulation to restore the vascular networks dismantled by an ischemic insult or to sustain the early phases of the angiogenic switch in solid tumors. A growing number of studies demonstrated that intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling plays a crucial role in driving ECFC proliferation, migration, homing and neovessel formation. For instance, vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) triggers intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillations and stimulates angiogenesis in healthy ECFCs, whereas stromal derived factor-1α promotes ECFC migration through a biphasic Ca²⁺ signal. The Ca²⁺ toolkit endowed to circulating ECFCs is extremely plastic and shows striking differences depending on the physiological background of the donor. For instance, inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate-induced Ca²⁺ release from the endoplasmic reticulum is downregulated in tumor-derived ECFCs, while agonists-induced store-operated Ca²⁺ entry is up-regulated in renal cellular carcinoma and is unaltered in breast cancer and reduced in infantile hemangioma. This remodeling of the Ca²⁺ toolkit prevents VEGF-induced pro-angiogenic Ca²⁺ oscillations in tumor-derived ECFCs. An emerging theme of research is the dysregulation of the Ca²⁺ toolkit in primary myelofibrosis-derived ECFCs, as this myeloproliferative disorder may depend on a driver mutation in the calreticulin gene. In this chapter, I provide a comprehensive, but succinct, description on the architecture and role of the intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling toolkit in ECFCs derived from umbilical cord blood and from peripheral blood of healthy donors, cancer patients and subjects affected by primary myelofibrosis.

Glutamate triggers intracellular Ca2+ oscillations and nitric oxide release by inducing NAADP- and InsP3 -dependent Ca2+ release in mouse brain endothelial cells

The neurotransmitter glutamate increases cerebral blood flow by activating postsynaptic neurons and presynaptic glial cells within the neurovascular unit. Glutamate does so by causing an increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺ ]_i ) in the target cells, which activates the Ca²⁺ /Calmodulin-dependent nitric oxide (NO) synthase to release NO. It is unclear whether brain endothelial cells also sense glutamate through an elevation in [Ca²⁺ ]_i and NO production. The current study assessed whether and how glutamate drives Ca²⁺ -dependent NO release in bEND5 cells, an established model of brain endothelial cells. We found that glutamate induced a dose-dependent oscillatory increase in [Ca²⁺ ]_i , which was maximally activated at 200 μM and inhibited by α-methyl-4-carboxyphenylglycine, a selective blocker of Group 1 metabotropic glutamate receptors. Glutamate-induced intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillations were triggered by rhythmic endogenous Ca²⁺ mobilization and maintained over time by extracellular Ca²⁺ entry. Pharmacological manipulation revealed that glutamate-induced endogenous Ca²⁺ release was mediated by InsP₃ -sensitive receptors and nicotinic acid adenine dinucleotide phosphate (NAADP) gated two-pore channel 1. Constitutive store-operated Ca²⁺ entry mediated Ca²⁺ entry during ongoing Ca²⁺ oscillations. Finally, glutamate evoked a robust, although delayed increase in NO levels, which was blocked by pharmacologically inhibition of the accompanying intracellular Ca²⁺ signals. Of note, glutamate induced Ca²⁺ -dependent NO release also in hCMEC/D3 cells, an established model of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. This investigation demonstrates for the first time that metabotropic glutamate-induced intracellular Ca²⁺ oscillations and NO release have the potential to impact on neurovascular coupling in the brain.

Muscarinic M5 receptors trigger acetylcholine-induced Ca2+ signals and nitric oxide release in human brain microvascular endothelial cells

Basal forebrain neurons control cerebral blood flow (CBF) by releasing acetylcholine (Ach), which binds to endothelial muscarinic receptors to induce nitric (NO) release and vasodilation in intraparenchymal arterioles. Nevertheless, the mechanism whereby Ach stimulates human brain microvascular endothelial cells to produce NO is still unknown. Herein, we sought to assess whether Ach stimulates NO production in a Ca²⁺ -dependent manner in hCMEC/D3 cells, a widespread model of human brain microvascular endothelial cells. Ach induced a dose-dependent increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺ ]_i ) that was prevented by the genetic blockade of M5 muscarinic receptors (M5-mAchRs), which was the only mAchR isoform coupled to phospholipase Cβ (PLCβ) present in hCMEC/D3 cells. A comprehensive real-time polymerase chain reaction analysis revealed the expression of the transcripts encoding for type 3 inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP₃ R3), two-pore channels 1 and 2 (TPC1-2), Stim2, Orai1-3. Pharmacological manipulation showed that the Ca²⁺ response to Ach was mediated by InsP₃ R3, TPC1-2, and store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE). Ach-induced NO release, in turn, was inhibited in cells deficient of M5-mAchRs. Likewise, Ach failed to increase NO levels in the presence of l-NAME, a selective NOS inhibitor, or BAPTA, a membrane-permeant intracellular Ca²⁺ buffer. Moreover, the pharmacological blockade of the Ca²⁺ response to Ach also inhibited the accompanying NO production. These data demonstrate for the first time that synaptically released Ach may trigger NO release in human brain microvascular endothelial cells by stimulating a Ca²⁺ signal via M5-mAchRs.

The Role of Endothelial Ca2+ Signaling in Neurovascular Coupling: A View from the Lumen

BACKGROUND

Neurovascular coupling (NVC) is the mechanism whereby an increase in neuronal activity (NA) leads to local elevation in cerebral blood flow (CBF) to match the metabolic requirements of firing neurons. Following synaptic activity, an increase in neuronal and/or astrocyte Ca2+ concentration leads to the synthesis of multiple vasoactive messengers. Curiously, the role of endothelial Ca2+ signaling in NVC has been rather neglected, although endothelial cells are known to control the vascular tone in a Ca2+-dependent manner throughout peripheral vasculature.

METHODS

We analyzed the literature in search of the most recent updates on the potential role of endothelial Ca2+ signaling in NVC.

RESULTS

We found that several neurotransmitters (i.e., glutamate and acetylcholine) and neuromodulators (e.g., ATP) can induce dilation of cerebral vessels by inducing an increase in endothelial Ca2+ concentration. This, in turn, results in nitric oxide or prostaglandin E2 release or activate intermediate and small-conductance Ca2+-activated K⁺ channels, which are responsible for endothelial-dependent hyperpolarization (EDH). In addition, brain endothelial cells express multiple transient receptor potential (TRP) channels (i.e., TRPC3, TRPV3, TRPV4, TRPA1), which induce vasodilation by activating EDH.

CONCLUSIONS

It is possible to conclude that endothelial Ca2+ signaling is an emerging pathway in the control of NVC.

Acetylcholine induces intracellular Ca2+ oscillations and nitric oxide release in mouse brain endothelial cells

Basal forebrain neurons increase cortical blood flow by releasing acetylcholine (Ach), which stimulates endothelial cells (ECs) to produce the vasodilating gasotransmitter, nitric oxide (NO). Surprisingly, the mechanism whereby Ach induces NO synthesis in brain microvascular ECs is unknown. An increase in intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration recruits a multitude of endothelial Ca²⁺-dependent pathways, such as Ca²⁺/calmodulin endothelial NO synthase (eNOS). The present investigation sought to investigate the role of intracellular Ca²⁺ signaling in Ach-induced NO production in bEND5 cells, an established model of mouse brain microvascular ECs, by conventional imaging of cells loaded with the Ca²⁺-sensitive dye, Fura-2/AM, and the NO-sensitive fluorophore, DAF-DM diacetate. Ach induced dose-dependent Ca²⁺ oscillations in bEND5 cells, 300 μM being the most effective dose to generate a prolonged Ca²⁺ burst. Pharmacological manipulation revealed that Ach-evoked Ca²⁺ oscillations required metabotropic muscarinic receptor (mAchR) activation and were patterned by a complex interplay between repetitive ER Ca²⁺ release via inositol-1,4,5-trisphosphate receptors (InsP₃Rs) and store-operated Ca²⁺ entry (SOCE). A comprehensive real time-polymerase chain reaction analysis demonstrated the expression of the transcripts encoding for M3-mAChRs, InsP₃R1 and InsP₃R3, Stim1-2 and Orai2. Next, we found that Ach-induced NO production was hindered by L-NAME, a selective NOS inhibitor, and BAPTA, a membrane permeable intracellular Ca²⁺ buffer. Moreover, Ach-elicited NO synthesis was blocked by the pharmacological abrogation of the accompanying Ca²⁺ spikes. Overall, these data shed novel light on the molecular mechanisms whereby neuronally-released Ach controls neurovascular coupling in blood microvessels.

Expression and function of neuronal nicotinic ACh receptors in rat microvascular endothelial cells

The expression and function of nicotinic ACh receptors (nAChRs) in rat coronary microvascular endothelial cells (CMECs) were examined using RT-PCR and whole cell patch-clamp recording methods. RT-PCR revealed expression of mRNA encoding for the subunits alpha(2), alpha(3), alpha(4), alpha(5), alpha(7), beta(2), and beta(4) but not beta(3). Focal application of ACh evoked an inward current in isolated CMECs voltage clamped at negative membrane potentials. The current-voltage relationship of the ACh-induced current exhibited marked inward rectification and a reversal potential (E(rev)) close to 0 mV. The cholinergic agonists nicotine, epibatidine, and cytisine activated membrane currents similar to those evoked by ACh. The nicotine-induced current was abolished by the neuronal nAChR antagonist mecamylamine. The direction and magnitude of the shift in E(rev) of nicotine-induced current as a function of extracellular Na(+) concentration indicate that the nAChR channel is cation selective and follows that predicted by the Goldman-Hodgkin-Katz equation assuming K(+)/Na(+) permeability ratio of 1.11. In fura-2-loaded CMECs, application of ACh, but not of nicotine, elicited a transient increase in intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration. Taken together, these results demonstrate that neuronal nAChR activation by cholinergic agonists evokes an inward current in CMECs carried primarily by Na(+), which may contribute to the plasma nicotine-induced changes in microvascular permeability and reactivity induced by elevations in plasma nicotine.