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Concina G, Renna A, Grosso A, Sacchetti B. The auditory cortex and the emotional valence of sounds. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 98:256-264. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.01.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/03/2018] [Revised: 01/14/2019] [Accepted: 01/17/2019] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Kim DJ, Lee AS, Yttredahl AA, Gómez-Rodríguez R, Anderson BJ. Repeated threat (without direct harm) alters metabolic capacity in select regions that drive defensive behavior. Neuroscience 2017; 353:106-118. [PMID: 28433648 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2016] [Revised: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/10/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
To understand the behavioral consequences of intermittent anticipatory stress resulting from threats without accompanying physiological challenges, we developed a semi-naturalistic rodent housing and foraging environment that can include threats that are unpredictable in timing. Behavior is automatically recorded while rats forage for food or water. Over three weeks, the threats have been shown to elicit risk assessment behaviors, increase defensive burying and increase adrenal gland weight. To identify brain regions activated by this manipulation, we measured cytochrome c oxidase (COX), which is tightly coupled to neural activity. Adolescent male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly assigned to control (CT) or unpredictable threat/stress (ST) housing conditions consisting of two tub cages, one with food and another with water, separated by a tunnel. Over three weeks (P31-P52), the ST group received randomly timed (probability of 0.25), simultaneous presentations of ferret odor, an abrupt light, and sound at the center of the tunnel. The ST group had consistently fewer tunnel crossings than the CT group, but similar body weights. Group differences in COX activity were detected in regions implicated in the control of defensive burying. There was an increase in COX activity in the hypothalamic premammillary dorsal nucleus (PMD) and lateral septum (LS), whereas a decrease was observed in the periaqueductal gray (PAG) and CA3 region of the hippocampus. There were no significant differences in the anterior cingulate cortex, prefrontal cortex, striatum or motor cortex. The sites with changes in metabolic capacity are candidates for the sites of plasticity that may underlie the behavioral adaptations to intermittent threats.
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Affiliation(s)
- D J Kim
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States; Graduate Program in Integrative Neuroscience, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States
| | - A S Lee
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States
| | - A A Yttredahl
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States; Graduate Program in Integrative Neuroscience, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States
| | - R Gómez-Rodríguez
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States
| | - B J Anderson
- Department of Psychology, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States; Graduate Program in Integrative Neuroscience, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY 11794-5230, United States.
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Cambiaghi M, Grosso A, Renna A, Sacchetti B. Differential Recruitment of Auditory Cortices in the Consolidation of Recent Auditory Fearful Memories. J Neurosci 2016; 36:8586-97. [PMID: 27535907 PMCID: PMC6601899 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0561-16.2016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2016] [Revised: 06/16/2016] [Accepted: 06/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
UNLABELLED Memories of frightening events require a protracted consolidation process. Sensory cortex, such as the auditory cortex, is involved in the formation of fearful memories with a more complex sensory stimulus pattern. It remains controversial, however, whether the auditory cortex is also required for fearful memories related to simple sensory stimuli. In the present study, we found that, 1 d after training, the temporary inactivation of either the most anterior region of the auditory cortex, including the primary (Te1) cortex, or the most posterior region, which included the secondary (Te2) component, did not affect the retention of recent memories, which is consistent with the current literature. However, at this time point, the inactivation of the entire auditory cortices completely prevented the formation of new memories. Amnesia was site specific and was not due to auditory stimuli perception or processing and strictly related to the interference with memory consolidation processes. Strikingly, at a late time interval 4 d after training, blocking the posterior part (encompassing the Te2) alone impaired memory retention, whereas the inactivation of the anterior part (encompassing the Te1) left memory unaffected. Together, these data show that the auditory cortex is necessary for the consolidation of auditory fearful memories related to simple tones in rats. Moreover, these results suggest that, at early time intervals, memory information is processed in a distributed network composed of both the anterior and the posterior auditory cortical regions, whereas, at late time intervals, memory processing is concentrated in the most posterior part containing the Te2 region. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Memories of threatening experiences undergo a prolonged process of "consolidation" to be maintained for a long time. The dynamic of fearful memory consolidation is poorly understood. Here, we show that 1 d after learning, memory is processed in a distributed network composed of both primary Te1 and secondary Te2 auditory cortices, whereas, at late time intervals, memory processing is concentrated in the most posterior Te2 cortex. Together, our data reveal that the consolidation of fearful memories related to simple auditory stimuli requires the auditory cortex, provided that the inactivation encompasses both the primary and the secondary components of the cortex, and that different regions of the auditory cortex play complementary but different roles in these processes.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Anna Grosso
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience and
| | | | - Benedetto Sacchetti
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience and National Institute of Neuroscience, University of Turin, I-10125 Turin, Italy
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Gallo M, Ballesteros M, Molero A, Morón I. Taste Aversion Learning as a Tool for the Study of Hippocampal and Non-Hippocampal Brain Memory Circuits Regulating Diet Selection. Nutr Neurosci 2016; 2:277-302. [DOI: 10.1080/1028415x.1999.11747284] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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Grosso A, Cambiaghi M, Concina G, Sacco T, Sacchetti B. Auditory cortex involvement in emotional learning and memory. Neuroscience 2015; 299:45-55. [PMID: 25943482 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.04.068] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2015] [Revised: 04/23/2015] [Accepted: 04/28/2015] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
Emotional memories represent the core of human and animal life and drive future choices and behaviors. Early research involving brain lesion studies in animals lead to the idea that the auditory cortex participates in emotional learning by processing the sensory features of auditory stimuli paired with emotional consequences and by transmitting this information to the amygdala. Nevertheless, electrophysiological and imaging studies revealed that, following emotional experiences, the auditory cortex undergoes learning-induced changes that are highly specific, associative and long lasting. These studies suggested that the role played by the auditory cortex goes beyond stimulus elaboration and transmission. Here, we discuss three major perspectives created by these data. In particular, we analyze the possible roles of the auditory cortex in emotional learning, we examine the recruitment of the auditory cortex during early and late memory trace encoding, and finally we consider the functional interplay between the auditory cortex and subcortical nuclei, such as the amygdala, that process affective information. We conclude that, starting from the early phase of memory encoding, the auditory cortex has a more prominent role in emotional learning, through its connections with subcortical nuclei, than is typically acknowledged.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Grosso
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Corso Raffaello 30, I-10125 Turin, Italy
| | - M Cambiaghi
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Corso Raffaello 30, I-10125 Turin, Italy
| | - G Concina
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Corso Raffaello 30, I-10125 Turin, Italy
| | - T Sacco
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Corso Raffaello 30, I-10125 Turin, Italy
| | - B Sacchetti
- Rita Levi-Montalcini Department of Neuroscience, University of Turin, Corso Raffaello 30, I-10125 Turin, Italy; National Institute of Neuroscience, Italy.
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6
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Metabolic brain activity underlying behavioral performance and spatial strategy choice in sedentary and exercised Wistar rats. Neuroscience 2014; 281:110-23. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.09.054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2014] [Revised: 09/05/2014] [Accepted: 09/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/02/2023]
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Vélez-Hernández ME, Padilla E, Gonzalez-Lima F, Jiménez-Rivera CA. Cocaine reduces cytochrome oxidase activity in the prefrontal cortex and modifies its functional connectivity with brainstem nuclei. Brain Res 2014; 1542:56-69. [PMID: 24505625 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine-induced psychomotor stimulation may be mediated by metabolic hypofrontality and modification of brain functional connectivity. Functional connectivity refers to the pattern of relationships among brain regions, and one way to evaluate this pattern is using interactivity correlations of the metabolic marker cytochrome oxidase among different regions. This is the first study of how repeated cocaine modifies: (1) mean cytochrome oxidase activity in neural areas using quantitative enzyme histochemistry, and (2) functional connectivity among brain regions using inter-correlations of cytochrome oxidase activity. Rats were injected with 15 mg/kg i.p. cocaine or saline for 5 days, which lead to cocaine-enhanced total locomotion. Mean cytochrome oxidase activity was significantly decreased in cocaine-treated animals in the superficial dorsal and lateral frontal cortical association areas Fr2 and Fr3 when compared to saline-treated animals. Functional connectivity showed that the cytochrome oxidase activity of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus and the infralimbic cortex were positively inter-correlated in cocaine but not in control rats. Positive cytochrome oxidase activity inter-correlations were also observed between the dopaminergic substantia nigra compacta and Fr2 and Fr3 areas and the lateral orbital cortex in cocaine-treated animals. In contrast, cytochrome oxidase activity in the interpeduncular nucleus was negatively correlated with that of Fr2, anterior insular cortex, and lateral orbital cortex in saline but not in cocaine groups. After repeated cocaine specific prefrontal areas became hypometabolic and their functional connectivity changed in networks involving noradrenergic and dopaminergic brainstem nuclei. We suggest that this pattern of hypofrontality and altered functional connectivity may contribute to cocaine-induced psychomotor stimulation.
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Rojas JC, Bruchey AK, Gonzalez-Lima F. Neurometabolic mechanisms for memory enhancement and neuroprotection of methylene blue. Prog Neurobiol 2011; 96:32-45. [PMID: 22067440 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2011.10.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2011] [Revised: 10/26/2011] [Accepted: 10/27/2011] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
This paper provides the first review of the memory-enhancing and neuroprotective metabolic mechanisms of action of methylene blue in vivo. These mechanisms have important implications as a new neurobiological approach to improve normal memory and to treat memory impairment and neurodegeneration associated with mitochondrial dysfunction. Methylene blue's action is unique because its neurobiological effects are not determined by regular drug-receptor interactions or drug-response paradigms. Methylene blue shows a hormetic dose-response, with opposite effects at low and high doses. At low doses, methylene blue is an electron cycler in the mitochondrial electron transport chain, with unparalleled antioxidant and cell respiration-enhancing properties that affect the function of the nervous system in a versatile manner. A major role of the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase on the memory-enhancing effects of methylene blue is supported by available data. The memory-enhancing effects have been associated with improvement of memory consolidation in a network-specific and use-dependent fashion. In addition, low doses of methylene blue have also been used for neuroprotection against mitochondrial dysfunction in humans and experimental models of disease. The unique auto-oxidizing property of methylene blue and its pleiotropic effects on a number of tissue oxidases explain its potent neuroprotective effects at low doses. The evidence reviewed supports a mechanistic role of low-dose methylene blue as a promising and safe intervention for improving memory and for the treatment of acute and chronic conditions characterized by increased oxidative stress, neurodegeneration and memory impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio C Rojas
- Departments of Psychology, Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Conejo N, González-Pardo H, Gonzalez-Lima F, Arias J. Spatial learning of the water maze: Progression of brain circuits mapped with cytochrome oxidase histochemistry. Neurobiol Learn Mem 2010; 93:362-71. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nlm.2009.12.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2009] [Revised: 10/02/2009] [Accepted: 12/01/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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Xiong J, Ma L, Wang B, Narayana S, Duff EP, Egan GF, Fox PT. Long-term motor training induced changes in regional cerebral blood flow in both task and resting states. Neuroimage 2009; 45:75-82. [PMID: 19100845 PMCID: PMC2672588 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2008.11.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/24/2008] [Revised: 11/07/2008] [Accepted: 11/11/2008] [Indexed: 10/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroimaging studies of functional activation often only reflect differentiated involvement of brain regions compared between task performance and control states. Signals common for both states are typically not revealed. Previous motor learning studies have shown that extensive motor skill training can induce profound changes in regional activity in both task and control states. To address the issue of brain activity changes in the resting-state, we explored long-term motor training induced neuronal and physiological changes in normal human subjects using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET). Ten healthy subjects performed a finger movement task daily for four weeks, during which three sessions of fMRI images and two sessions of PET images were acquired. Using a classical data analysis strategy, we found that the brain activation increased first and then returned to the pre-training, replicating previous findings. Interestingly, we also observed that motor skill training induced significant increases in regional cerebral blood flow (rCBF) in both task and resting states as the practice progressed. The apparent decrease in activation may actually result from a greater increase in activity in the resting state, rather than a decrease in the task state. By showing that training can affect the resting state, our findings have profound implications for the interpretation of functional activations in neuroimaging studies. Combining changes in resting state with activation data should greatly enhance our understanding of the mechanisms of motor-skill learning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinhu Xiong
- Department of Radiology, University of Iowa, Iowa City, 52242, USA.
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Bruchey AK, Gonzalez-Lima F. Enhanced metabolic capacity of the frontal cerebral cortex after Pavlovian conditioning. Neuroscience 2007; 152:299-307. [PMID: 18291593 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2007.08.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2007] [Revised: 07/19/2007] [Accepted: 11/16/2007] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
While Pavlovian conditioning alters stimulus-evoked metabolic activity in the cerebral cortex, less is known about the effects of Pavlovian conditioning on neuronal metabolic capacity. Pavlovian conditioning may increase prefrontal cortical metabolic capacity, as suggested by evidence of changes in cortical synaptic strengths, and evidence for a shift in memory initially processed in subcortical regions to more distributed prefrontal cortical circuits. Quantitative cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was used to measure cumulative changes in brain metabolic capacity associated with both cued and contextual Pavlovian conditioning in rats. The cued conditioned group received tone-foot-shock pairings to elicit a conditioned freezing response to the tone conditioned stimulus, while the contextually conditioned group received pseudorandom tone-foot-shock pairings in an excitatory context. Untrained control group was handled daily, but did not receive any tone presentations or foot shocks. The cued conditioned group had higher cytochrome oxidase activity in the infralimbic and anterior cingulate cortex, and lower cytochrome oxidase activity in dorsal hippocampus than the other two groups. A significant increase in cytochrome oxidase activity was found in anterior cortical areas (medial, dorsal and lateral frontal cortex; agranular insular cortex; lateral and medial orbital cortex and prelimbic cortex) in both conditioned groups, as compared with the untrained control group. In addition, no differences in cytochrome oxidase activity in the somatosensory regions and the amygdala were detected among all groups. The findings indicate that cued and contextual Pavlovian conditioning induces sustained increases in frontal cortical neuronal metabolic demand resulting in regional enhancement in the metabolic capacity of anterior cortical regions. Enhanced metabolic capacity of these anterior cortical areas after Pavlovian conditioning suggests that the frontal cortex may play a role in the retention and regulation of learned associations.
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Affiliation(s)
- A K Bruchey
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas, Austin, TX 78712-0187, USA
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12
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Puga F, Barrett DW, Bastida CC, Gonzalez-Lima F. Functional networks underlying latent inhibition learning in the mouse brain. Neuroimage 2007; 38:171-83. [PMID: 17703956 PMCID: PMC2225985 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2007.06.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2006] [Revised: 06/13/2007] [Accepted: 06/15/2007] [Indexed: 10/23/2022] Open
Abstract
The present study reports the first comprehensive map of brain networks underlying latent inhibition learning and the first application of structural equation modeling to cytochrome oxidase data. In latent inhibition, repeated exposure to a stimulus results in a latent form of learning that inhibits subsequent associations with that stimulus. As neuronal energy demands to form learned associations changes, so does the induction of the respiratory enzyme cytochrome oxidase. Therefore, cytochrome oxidase can be used as an endpoint metabolic marker of the effects of experience on regional brain metabolic capacity. Quantitative cytochrome oxidase histochemistry was used to map brain regions in mice trained on a tone-footshock fear conditioning paradigm with either tone preexposure (latent inhibition), conditioning only (acquisition), conditioning followed by tone alone (extinction), or no handling or conditioning (naive). The ventral cochlear nucleus, medial geniculate, CA1 hippocampus, and perirhinal cortex showed modified metabolic capacity due to latent inhibition. Structural equation modeling was used to determine the causal influences in an anatomical network of these regions and others thought to mediate latent inhibition, including the accumbens and entorhinal cortex. An uncoupling of ascending influences between auditory regions was observed in latent inhibition. There was also a reduced influence on the accumbens from the perirhinal cortex in both latent inhibition and extinction. The results suggest a specific network with a neural mechanism of latent inhibition that appears to involve sensory gating, as evidenced by modifications in metabolic capacity and effective connectivity between auditory regions and reduced perirhinal cortex influence on the accumbens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Frank Puga
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, 1 University Station A8000, Austin, TX 78712-0187, USA
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Heldt SA, Falls WA. Posttraining lesions of the auditory thalamus, but not cortex, disrupt the inhibition of fear conditioned to an auditory stimulus. Eur J Neurosci 2006; 23:765-79. [PMID: 16487157 DOI: 10.1111/j.1460-9568.2006.04604.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of lesions within the auditory system in an effort to disrupt the processing of the noise stimulus conditioned to inhibit fear. To accomplish this, three experiments were conducted in which rats were first given feature-negative discrimination training in which a noise was conditioned to inhibit fear to a light that signals danger. Following training, rats were given lesions of the medial geniculate body (MGB), auditory thalamus (ADT), or auditory cortex (CTX). Next, rats were tested for the ability to inhibit fear in the presence of the noise safety signal. The results of these experiments indicated that bilateral lesions of ADT disrupted the ability of the noise inhibitor to inhibit fear. In contrast, lesions largely restricted to the MGB or CTX did not disrupt the inhibition of fear. Along with past studies, these results suggest that an auditory pathway(s), which includes projections from the tectum to the ADT, is used to detect the safety properties previously conditioned to an auditory stimulus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Heldt
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA.
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Heldt SA, Falls WA. Destruction of the inferior colliculus disrupts the production and inhibition of fear conditioned to an acoustic stimulus. Behav Brain Res 2003; 144:175-85. [PMID: 12946608 DOI: 10.1016/s0166-4328(03)00092-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The inferior colliculus (IC) is the major source of auditory information involved in processing the behavioral significance of acoustic stimuli. In the current study, we assessed whether the IC is a critical source of information which mediates the expression of fear and the inhibition of fear conditioned to an auditory stimulus. Fear and the inhibition of fear were tested by measuring fear-potentiated startle. In Experiment 1, we demonstrated that rats which received electrolytic lesions of the IC failed to show fear-potentiated startle in the presence of a noise previously conditioned to elicit fear. In Experiment 2, we demonstrated that rats with similarly placed lesions of the IC failed to inhibit fear-potentiated startle in the presence of a noise previously conditioned to inhibit fear to a light. Thus, in both Experiments 1 and 2, lesions of the IC disrupted the behavioral significance of the noise stimulus. Together with previous findings, these results are consistent with the view that the IC is a common source of diverging auditory information used to mediate the fear eliciting and safety signal properties conditioned to auditory stimuli.
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Affiliation(s)
- Scott A Heldt
- Department of Psychology, Northern Illinois University, DeKalb, IL, USA
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15
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Déglise P, Dacher M, Dion E, Gauthier M, Armengaud C. Regional brain variations of cytochrome oxidase staining during olfactory learning in the honeybee (Apis mellifera). Behav Neurosci 2003; 117:540-7. [PMID: 12802882 DOI: 10.1037/0735-7044.117.3.540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Regional brain variations of cytochrome oxidase (CO) staining were analyzed in the honeybee (Apis mellifera) after olfactory conditioning of the proboscis extension reflex. Identification of brain sites where stimuli converge was done by precise image analysis performed in antennal lobes (AL) and mushroom bodies (MB). In Experiment 1, bees received 5 odorant stimulations that induced a transient decrease of CO activity in the lateral part of the AL. In Experiment 2, bees were trained with 5-trial olfactory conditioning. CO activity transiently increased in the lips of the MB calyces. There was also a delayed increase in the lateral part of the AL. An olfactory stimulus presented alone and an odor paired to a sucrose stimulation are treated by different pathways, including both AL and MB.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrice Déglise
- Laboratoire de Neurobiologie de l'Insecte, Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III, France
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Abstract
The associative inhibitory control of behaviour is a major component of Pavlovian learning theory, but little is known about its functional neuroanatomy. The associative effects of differential inhibition of conditioned behaviour were investigated by mapping learning-related changes in brain activity of the rat with fluorodeoxyglucose autoradiography. Of interest was how a tone is processed in auditory and extra-auditory systems of the rat brain under similar behavioural, but different associative conditions. Conditioned emotional suppression to drink was used to assess training, and summation tests were used to verify that the tone became an inhibitor of conditioned behaviour. In the Inhibitor group, presentations of a tone stimulus alone were intermixed with presentations of a light stimulus followed by footshock. In the Pseudorandom group, the same numbers of tone, light and footshock presentations were used, but they were presented in a pseudorandom fashion. After training, fluorodeoxyglucose uptake was measured during tone presentations. Behavioural responding to the tone was similar during fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in the two groups, yet associative effects were found in brain activity. In the auditory system, the tone produced reduced fluorodeoxyglucose uptake in major relay nuclei (cochlear nucleus and inferior colliculus) in the Inhibitor group relative to the Pseudorandom group. The tone inhibitor produced similar decreases in the septohippocampal system and the retrosplenial cortex. In contrast, the tone inhibitor produced activity increases in somatosensory and reticulocerebellar systems. The findings provide the first detailed map of neural regions involved in the learned associations controlling differential inhibition of conditioned behaviour.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Jones
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Jones D, Gonzalez-Lima F. Mapping Pavlovian conditioning effects on the brain: blocking, contiguity, and excitatory effects. J Neurophysiol 2001; 86:809-23. [PMID: 11495952 DOI: 10.1152/jn.2001.86.2.809] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Pavlovian conditioning effects on the brain were investigated by mapping rat brain activity with fluorodeoxyglucose (FDG) autoradiography. The goal was to map the effects of the same tone after blocking or eliciting a conditioned emotional response (CER). In the tone-blocked group, previous learning about a light blocked a CER to the tone. In the tone-excitor group, the same pairings of tone with shock US resulted in a CER to the tone in the absence of previous learning about the light. A third group showed no CER after pseudorandom presentations of these stimuli. Brain systems involved in the various associative effects of Pavlovian conditioning were identified, and their functional significance was interpreted in light of previous FDG studies. Three conditioning effects were mapped: 1) blocking effects: FDG uptake was lower in medial prefrontal cortex and higher in spinal trigeminal and cuneate nuclei in the tone-blocked group relative to the tone-excitor group. 2) Contiguity effects: relative to pseudorandom controls, similar FDG uptake increases in the tone-blocked and -excitor groups were found in auditory regions (inferior colliculus and cortex), hippocampus (CA1), cerebellum, caudate putamen, and solitary nucleus. Contiguity effects may be due to tone-shock pairings common to the tone-blocked and -excitor groups rather than their different CER. And 3) excitatory effects: FDG uptake increases limited to the tone-excitor group occurred in a circuit linked to the CER, including insular and anterior cingulate cortex, vertical diagonal band nucleus, anterior hypothalamus, and caudoventral caudate putamen. This study provided the first large-scale map of brain regions underlying the Kamin blocking effect on conditioning. In particular, the results suggest that suppression of prefrontal activity and activation of unconditioned stimulus pathways are important neural substrates of the Kamin blocking effect.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Jones
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, 78712, USA
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McCloskey DP, Adamo DS, Anderson BJ. Exercise increases metabolic capacity in the motor cortex and striatum, but not in the hippocampus. Brain Res 2001; 891:168-75. [PMID: 11164820 DOI: 10.1016/s0006-8993(00)03200-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
Acute bouts of exercise have been shown to produce transient increases in regional cerebral glucose utilization, oxygen uptake, and cerebral blood flow in motor cortex, striatum, and hippocampus. The purpose of this study was to determine whether or not chronic exercise will cause long-term metabolic plasticity in brain structures activated during physical activity. The activity of cytochrome oxidase (COX), is coupled to the production of ATP, and reflects long-term plasticity in metabolic capacity. The present study examined whether or not 6 months of voluntary exercise would increase COX activity in the striatum, sensorimotor cortex, and three hippocampal subfields. Five-month-old, female Long-Evans hooded rats were randomly assigned to a control or exercise condition. Exercising rats had running wheels attached to their home cages. After the training period, fresh brains were rapidly frozen and sectioned with a cryostat. COX activity was measured using COX histochemical methods and optical densitometry. Rats in the exercise condition had significantly higher optical density in the hindlimb and forelimb motor cortices (18%, P<0.01) and dorsolateral caudate putamen (17%, P<0.01), but not in the ventrolateral caudate putamen or any subfield of the hippocampus. Although exercise is believed to increase neuronal activity in the hippocampus, motor cortex and striatum, only limb representations in the motor cortex and striatum increase bioenergetic capacity after regular exercise.
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Affiliation(s)
- D P McCloskey
- Department of Psychology, SUNY Stony Brook, Stony Brook, NY 11794-2500, USA
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Abstract
All senses, except olfaction, are routed through the thalamus to cerebral cortex. Thus, the thalamus is often referred to as the sensory gateway to cortex. Located between thalamus and cortex is a thin lamina of neurons called the thalamic reticular nucleus, which may function as an attentional gate. The phenomenon of blocking in classical conditioning provides an opportunity to test whether an attended stimulus activates the thalamic reticular nucleus more than an unattended stimulus: when a second stimulus is presented together with a previously conditioned stimulus, conditioned responding to the second stimulus is inhibited. Different groups of rats were given conditioning sessions with a single stimulus, a light or a tone, and then given conditioning sessions with compound (light and tone) stimuli. Blocking was confirmed using probe trials of single stimulus presentations. After a final test session of compound stimulus presentations, the brains were processed for the presence of Fos protein. Here we show that Fos-positive neurons were more numerous in the sector of the thalamic reticular nucleus associated with the attended conditioned stimulus than in the sector associated with the unattended stimulus. Thus, we provide evidence for an involvement of the thalamic reticular nucleus in selective attention.
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Nair HP, Collisson T, Gonzalez-Lima F. Postnatal development of cytochrome oxidase activity in fiber tracts of the rat brain. BRAIN RESEARCH. DEVELOPMENTAL BRAIN RESEARCH 1999; 118:197-203. [PMID: 10611519 DOI: 10.1016/s0165-3806(99)00149-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
This paper describes postnatal changes in cytochrome oxidase (C.O.) activity in developing fiber tracts. Quantitative histochemistry was used to measure changes in C.O. activity in nine white matter regions at postnatal days (P) 7, 12, 17, 30, and 60 in the rat. At P7, enzyme activity was maximal in the spinal trigeminal tract, medial longitudinal fasciculus, and cerebellar white matter. At P12, maximal levels were measured in the medial lemniscus and cerebral peduncle. C.O. activity increased from low levels at P7 to maximal levels by P17 in the hippocampal commissure, posterior and anterior corpus callosum, and anterior commissure. In all nine regions, C.O. activity decreased by P60. Thus, peaks in C.O. activity shifted as a function of postnatal age in a caudo-rostral direction. The regional heterogeneity in the age of onset in C.O. fluctuations suggests that vulnerability to injury and metabolic dysfunction during the perinatal period will differentially affect white matter structures, depending on the age of onset of such disruptions.
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Affiliation(s)
- H P Nair
- Institute for Neuroscience and Department of Psychology University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Poremba A, Jones D, Gonzalez-Lima F. Classical conditioning modifies cytochrome oxidase activity in the auditory system. Eur J Neurosci 1998; 10:3035-43. [PMID: 9786198 DOI: 10.1046/j.1460-9568.1998.00304.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
The effects of excitatory classical conditioning on cytochrome oxidase activity in the central auditory system were investigated using quantitative histochemistry. Rats in the conditioned group were trained with consistent pairings of a compound conditional stimulus (a tone and a light) with a mild footshock, to elicit conditioned suppression of drinking. Rats in the pseudorandom group were exposed to pseudorandom presentations of the same tone, light and shock stimuli without consistent pairings. Untrained rats in a naive group did not receive presentations of the experimental stimuli. The findings demonstrated that auditory fear conditioning modifies the metabolic neuronal responses of the auditory system, supporting the hypothesis that sensory neurons are responsive to behavioural stimulus properties acquired by learning. There was a clear distinction between thalamocortical and lower divisions of the auditory system based on the differences in metabolic activity evoked by classical conditioning, which lead to an overt learned behavioural response versus pseudorandom stimulus presentations, which lead to behavioural habituation. Increases in cytochrome oxidase activity indicated that tone processing is enhanced during associative conditioning at upper auditory structures (medial geniculate nucleus and secondary auditory cortices). In contrast, metabolic activation of lower auditory structures (cochlear nuclei and inferior colliculus) in response to the pseudorandom presentation of the experimental stimuli suggest that these areas may be activated during habituation to tone stimuli. Together these findings show that mapping the metabolic activity of cytochrome oxidase with quantitative histochemistry can be successfully used to map regional long-lasting effects of learning on brain systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Poremba
- Department of Psychology and Institute for Neuroscience, University of Texas at Austin, 78712, USA
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