1
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Burke JM, Gilchrist AR, Sawyer SL, Parker R. RNase L limits host and viral protein synthesis via inhibition of mRNA export. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2021; 7:eabh2479. [PMID: 34088676 PMCID: PMC8177694 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.abh2479] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2021] [Accepted: 04/21/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
RNase L is widely thought to limit viral protein synthesis by cleaving host rRNA and viral mRNA, resulting in translation arrest and viral mRNA degradation. Here, we show that the mRNAs of dengue virus and influenza A virus largely escape RNase L-mediated mRNA decay, and this permits viral protein production. However, activation of RNase L arrests nuclear mRNA export, which strongly inhibits influenza A virus protein synthesis and reduces cytokine production. The heterogeneous and temporal nature of the mRNA export block in individual cells permits sufficient production of antiviral cytokines from transcriptionally induced host mRNAs. This defines RNase L-mediated arrest of mRNA export as a key antiviral shutoff and cytokine regulatory pathway.
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Affiliation(s)
- James M Burke
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
| | - Alison R Gilchrist
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Sara L Sawyer
- Department of Molecular, Cellular, and Developmental Biology, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80309, USA
| | - Roy Parker
- Department of Biochemistry, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA.
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of Colorado Boulder, Boulder, CO 80303, USA
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2
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Schwartz SL, Conn GL. RNA regulation of the antiviral protein 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-RNA 2019; 10:e1534. [PMID: 30989826 DOI: 10.1002/wrna.1534] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2019] [Revised: 03/12/2019] [Accepted: 03/14/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
The innate immune system is a broad collection of critical intra- and extra-cellular processes that limit the infectivity of diverse pathogens. The 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS) family of enzymes are important sensors of cytosolic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) that play a critical role in limiting viral infection by activating the latent ribonuclease (RNase L) to halt viral replication and establish an antiviral state. Attesting to the importance of the OAS/RNase L pathway, diverse viruses have developed numerous distinct strategies to evade the effects of OAS activation. How OAS proteins are regulated by viral or cellular RNAs is not fully understood but several recent studies have provided important new insights into the molecular mechanisms of OAS activation by dsRNA. Other studies have revealed unanticipated features of RNA sequence and structure that strongly enhance activation of at least one OAS family member. While these discoveries represent important advances, they also underscore the fact that much remains to be learned about RNA-mediated regulation of the OAS/RNase L pathway. In particular, defining the full complement of RNA molecular signatures that activate OAS is essential to our understanding of how these proteins maximize their protective role against pathogens while still accurately discriminating host molecules to avoid inadvertent activation by cellular RNAs. A more complete knowledge of OAS regulation may also serve as a foundation for the development of novel antiviral therapeutic strategies and lead the way to a deeper understanding of currently unappreciated cellular functions of the OAS/RNase L pathway in the absence of infection. This article is categorized under: RNA in Disease and Development > RNA in Disease RNA Interactions with Proteins and Other Molecules > Protein-RNA Interactions: Functional Implications Translation > Translation Regulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samantha L Schwartz
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine and Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Developmental Biology (BCDB), Atlanta, Georgia
| | - Graeme L Conn
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine and Graduate Program in Biochemistry, Cell and Developmental Biology (BCDB), Atlanta, Georgia
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3
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Koul A, Deo S, Booy EP, Orriss GL, Genung M, McKenna SA. Impact of double-stranded RNA characteristics on the activation of human 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase 2 (OAS2). Biochem Cell Biol 2019; 98:70-82. [PMID: 30965010 DOI: 10.1139/bcb-2019-0060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human 2'-5' oligoadenylate synthetases (OAS) are a family of interferon-inducible proteins that, upon activation by double-stranded RNA, polymerize ATP into 2'-5' linked oligoadenylates. In this study, we probed the RNA cofactor specificity of the two smallest isozymes, OAS1 and OAS2. First, we developed a strategy for the expression and purification of recombinant human OAS2 from eukaryotic cells and quantified the activity of the enzyme relative to OAS1 in vitro. We then confirmed that both OAS2 domains, as opposed to only the domain containing the canonical catalytic aspartic acid triad, are required for enzymatic activity. Enzyme kinetics of both OAS1 and OAS2 in the presence of a variety of RNA binding partners enabled characterization of the maximum reaction velocity and apparent RNA-protein affinity of activating RNAs. While in this study OAS1 can be catalytically activated by dsRNA of any length greater than 19 bp, OAS2 showed a marked increase in activity with increasing dsRNA length with a minimum requirement of 35 bp. Interestingly, activation of OAS2 was also more efficient when the dsRNA contained 3'-overhangs, despite no significant impact on binding affinity. Highly structured viral RNAs that are established OAS1 activators were not able to activate OAS2 enzymatic activity based on the lack of extended stretches of dsRNA of greater than 35 bp. Together these results may highlight distinct subsets of biological RNAs to which different human OAS isozymes respond.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amit Koul
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Soumya Deo
- Alberta RNA Research and Training Institute, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Lethbridge, Lethbridge, AB T1K 3M4, Canada
| | - Evan P Booy
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - George L Orriss
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
| | - Matthew Genung
- Max Rady College of Medicine, Rady Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB, R3E 0W2, Canada
| | - Sean A McKenna
- Department of Chemistry, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada.,Department of Biochemistry and Medical Genetics, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, MB R3T 2N2, Canada
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4
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Kempkes B, Robertson ES. Epstein-Barr virus latency: current and future perspectives. Curr Opin Virol 2015; 14:138-44. [PMID: 26453799 PMCID: PMC5868753 DOI: 10.1016/j.coviro.2015.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 09/15/2015] [Accepted: 09/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
EBV drives resting B cells to continuous proliferating latently infected cells. A restricted program of viral transcription contributes to latency and cell proliferation important for growth transformation. Recent interest in latency and transformation has provided new data about the roles of the EBV encoded latent proteins and non-coding RNAs. We broadly describe the transcription, epigenetic, signaling and super-enhancer functions of the latent nuclear antigens in regulating cellular transcription; the role of LMP2 in utilization of the autophagosome to control cell death, and the association between LMP1, the linear ubiquitin chain assembly complex and TRAF1 which are important for transformation. This review explores recent discoveries with new insights into therapeutic avenues for EBV related malignancies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bettina Kempkes
- Department of Gene Vectors, Helmholtz Center Munich, German Research Center for Environmental Health, Munich, Germany.
| | - Erle S Robertson
- Department of Microbiology and the Tumor Virology Program of the Abramson Cancer Center, Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, USA.
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5
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Katsarou K, Rao ALN, Tsagris M, Kalantidis K. Infectious long non-coding RNAs. Biochimie 2015; 117:37-47. [PMID: 25986218 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2015.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2015] [Accepted: 05/07/2015] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Long non protein coding RNAs (lncRNAs) constitute a large category of the RNA world, able to regulate different biological processes. In this review we are focusing on infectious lncRNAs, their classification, pathogenesis and impact on the infected organisms. Here they are presented in two separate groups: 'dependent lncRNAs' (comprising satellites RNA, Hepatitis D virus and lncRNAs of viral origin) which need a helper virus and 'independent lncRNAs' (viroids) that can self-replicate. Even though these lncRNA do not encode any protein, their structure and/or sequence comprise all the necessary information to drive specific interactions with host factors and regulate several cellular functions. These new data that have emerged during the last few years concerning lncRNAs modify the way we understand molecular biology's 'central dogma' and give new perspectives for applications and potential therapeutic strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Konstantina Katsarou
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - A L N Rao
- Department of Plant Pathology and Microbiology, University of California, Riverside, CA, 92521-01222, USA
| | - Mina Tsagris
- Department of Biology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece
| | - Kriton Kalantidis
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, Foundation for Research and Technology, Heraklion, Crete, Greece; Department of Biology, University of Crete, Heraklion, Crete, Greece.
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6
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Vachon VK, Calderon BM, Conn GL. A novel RNA molecular signature for activation of 2'-5' oligoadenylate synthetase-1. Nucleic Acids Res 2014; 43:544-52. [PMID: 25477390 PMCID: PMC4288181 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gku1289] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Human 2'-5' oligoadenylate synthetase-1 (OAS1) is central in innate immune system detection of cytoplasmic double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) and promotion of host antiviral responses. However, the molecular signatures that promote OAS1 activation are currently poorly defined. We show that the 3'-end polyuridine sequence of viral and cellular RNA polymerase III non-coding transcripts is critical for their optimal activation of OAS1. Potentiation of OAS1 activity was also observed with a model dsRNA duplex containing an OAS1 activation consensus sequence. We determined that the effect is attributable to a single appended 3'-end residue, is dependent upon its single-stranded nature with strong preference for pyrimidine residues and is mediated by a highly conserved OAS1 residue adjacent to the dsRNA binding surface. These findings represent discovery of a novel signature for OAS1 activation, the 3'-single-stranded pyrimidine (3'-ssPy) motif, with potential functional implications for OAS1 activity in its antiviral and other anti-proliferative roles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Virginia K Vachon
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA Microbiology and Molecular Genetics (MMG) Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Brenda M Calderon
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA Biochemistry, Cell and Developmental Biology (BCDB) Program, Graduate Division of Biological and Biomedical Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Graeme L Conn
- Department of Biochemistry, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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7
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Learning from the messengers: innate sensing of viruses and cytokine regulation of immunity - clues for treatments and vaccines. Viruses 2013; 5:470-527. [PMID: 23435233 PMCID: PMC3640511 DOI: 10.3390/v5020470] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 01/22/2013] [Accepted: 01/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Virus infections are a major global public health concern, and only via substantial knowledge of virus pathogenesis and antiviral immune responses can we develop and improve medical treatments, and preventive and therapeutic vaccines. Innate immunity and the shaping of efficient early immune responses are essential for control of viral infections. In order to trigger an efficient antiviral defense, the host senses the invading microbe via pattern recognition receptors (PRRs), recognizing distinct conserved pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). The innate sensing of the invading virus results in intracellular signal transduction and subsequent production of interferons (IFNs) and proinflammatory cytokines. Cytokines, including IFNs and chemokines, are vital molecules of antiviral defense regulating cell activation, differentiation of cells, and, not least, exerting direct antiviral effects. Cytokines shape and modulate the immune response and IFNs are principle antiviral mediators initiating antiviral response through induction of antiviral proteins. In the present review, I describe and discuss the current knowledge on early virus–host interactions, focusing on early recognition of virus infection and the resulting expression of type I and type III IFNs, proinflammatory cytokines, and intracellular antiviral mediators. In addition, the review elucidates how targeted stimulation of innate sensors, such as toll-like receptors (TLRs) and intracellular RNA and DNA sensors, may be used therapeutically. Moreover, I present and discuss data showing how current antimicrobial therapies, including antibiotics and antiviral medication, may interfere with, or improve, immune response.
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8
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Regulation of the interferon-inducible 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetases by adenovirus VA(I) RNA. J Mol Biol 2012; 422:635-649. [PMID: 22709583 DOI: 10.1016/j.jmb.2012.06.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2012] [Revised: 05/05/2012] [Accepted: 06/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Foreign double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) generated during the normal course of the viral life cycle serves as a key infection recognition element by proteins of the innate immune response. To circumvent this response, all adenoviruses synthesize at least one highly structured RNA (VA(I)), which, after processing by the RNA silencing machinery, inhibits the innate immune response via a series of interactions with specific protein partners. Surprisingly, VA(I) positively regulates the activity of the interferon-induced 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS) enzymes, which typically represent a key mechanism whereby host-cell protein translation is attenuated in response to foreign dsRNA. We present data investigating the regulation of the OAS1 isoform by VA(I) derivatives and demonstrate that a processed version of VA(I) lacking the terminal stem behaves as a pseudo-inhibitor of OAS1. A combination of electrophoretic mobility shift assays, dynamic light scattering, and non-denaturing mass spectrometry was used to quantitate binding affinity and characterize OAS1:VA(I) complex stoichiometry. Enzyme assays characterized the ability of VA(I) derivatives to activate OAS1. Finally, the importance of RNA 5'-end phosphorylation state is investigated, and it emphasizes its potential importance in the activation or inhibition of OAS enzymes. Taken together, these data suggest a plausible strategy whereby the virus produces a single RNA transcript capable of inhibiting a variety of members of the innate immune response.
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10
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Anderson BR, Muramatsu H, Jha BK, Silverman RH, Weissman D, Karikó K. Nucleoside modifications in RNA limit activation of 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase and increase resistance to cleavage by RNase L. Nucleic Acids Res 2011; 39:9329-38. [PMID: 21813458 PMCID: PMC3241635 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkr586] [Citation(s) in RCA: 189] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The interferon-induced enzymes 2′-5′-oligoadenylate synthetase (OAS) and RNase L are key components of innate immunity involved in sensory and effector functions following viral infections. Upon binding target RNA, OAS is activated to produce 2′-5′-linked oligoadenylates (2-5A) that activate RNase L, which then cleaves single-stranded self and non-self RNA. Modified nucleosides that are present in cellular transcripts have been shown to suppress activation of several RNA sensors. Here, we demonstrate that in vitro transcribed, unmodified RNA activates OAS, induces RNase L-mediated ribosomal RNA (rRNA) cleavage and is rapidly cleaved by RNase L. In contrast, RNA containing modified nucleosides activates OAS less efficiently and induces limited rRNA cleavage. Nucleoside modifications also make RNA resistant to cleavage by RNase L. Examining translation in RNase L−/− cells and mice confirmed that RNase L activity reduces translation of unmodified mRNA, which is not observed with modified mRNA. Additionally, mRNA containing the nucleoside modification pseudouridine is translated longer and has an extended half-life. The observation that modified nucleosides in RNA reduce 2-5A pathway activation joins OAS and RNase L to the list of RNA sensors and effectors whose functions are limited when RNA is modified, confirming the role of nucleoside modifications in suppressing immune recognition of RNA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bart R Anderson
- Department of Medicine, 3610 Hamilton Walk, 522B Johnson Pavilion, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
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11
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Elbahesh H, Jha BK, Silverman RH, Scherbik SV, Brinton MA. The Flvr-encoded murine oligoadenylate synthetase 1b (Oas1b) suppresses 2-5A synthesis in intact cells. Virology 2010; 409:262-70. [PMID: 21056894 DOI: 10.1016/j.virol.2010.10.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2010] [Revised: 10/05/2010] [Accepted: 10/12/2010] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Resistance to flavivirus-induced disease in mice is conferred by the autosomal gene Flv, identified as 2'-5' oligoadenylate synthetase 1b (Oas1b). Resistant mice express a full-length Oas1b protein while susceptible mice express the truncated Oas1btr. In this study, Oas1b was shown to be an inactive synthetase. Although the Oas/RNase L pathway was previously shown to have an antiviral role during flavivirus infections, Oas1b protein inhibited Oas1a in vitro synthetase activity in a dose-dependent manner and reduced 2-5A production in vivo in response to poly(I:C). These findings suggest that negative regulation of 2-5A by inactive Oas1 proteins may fine tune the RNase L response that if not tightly controlled could cause significant damage in cells. The results also indicate that flavivirus resistance conferred by Oas1b is not mediated by 2-5A. Instead, Oas1b inhibits flavivirus replication by an alternative mechanism that overrides the proviral effect of reducing 2-5A accumulation and RNase L activation.
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Affiliation(s)
- H Elbahesh
- Department of Biology, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA 30302-4010, USA
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12
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13
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Bisbal C, Silverman RH. Diverse functions of RNase L and implications in pathology. Biochimie 2007; 89:789-98. [PMID: 17400356 PMCID: PMC2706398 DOI: 10.1016/j.biochi.2007.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 73] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/13/2006] [Accepted: 02/06/2007] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Abstract
The endoribonuclease L (RNase L) is the effector of the 2-5A system, a major enzymatic pathway involved in the molecular mechanism of interferons (IFNs). RNase L is a very unusual nuclease with a complex mechanism of regulation. It is a latent enzyme, expressed in nearly every mammalian cell type. Its activation requires its binding to a small oligonucleotide, 2-5A. 2-5A is a series of unique 5'-triphosphorylated oligoadenylates with 2'-5' phosphodiester bonds. By regulating viral and cellular RNA expression, RNase L plays an important role in the antiviral and antiproliferative activities of IFN and contributes to innate immunity and cell metabolism. The 2-5A/RNase L pathway is implicated in mediating apoptosis in response to viral infections and to several types of external stimuli. Several recent studies have suggested that RNase L could have a role in cancer biology and evidence of a tumor suppressor function of RNase L has emerged from studies on the genetics of hereditary prostate cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine Bisbal
- IGH UPR CNRS 1142. 141 rue de la Cardonille. 34396. Montpellier France. E-mail address: , Phone: 33 (0)4 99 61 99 73, Fax: 33 (0)4 99 61 99 01
| | - Robert H. Silverman
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, 9500 Euclid Avenue NB40, Cleveland Clinic, Cleveland OH 44195 USA, E-mail address: , Phone: (1) 216 445 9650, Fax: (1) 216 445 6269
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14
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Molinaro RJ, Jha BK, Malathi K, Varambally S, Chinnaiyan AM, Silverman RH. Selection and cloning of poly(rC)-binding protein 2 and Raf kinase inhibitor protein RNA activators of 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetase from prostate cancer cells. Nucleic Acids Res 2006; 34:6684-95. [PMID: 17145707 PMCID: PMC1751551 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkl968] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The antiviral and antitumor functions of RNase L are enabled by binding to the allosteric effectors 5'-phosphorylated, 2',5'-linked oligoadenylates (2-5A). 2-5A is produced by interferon-inducible 2',5'-oligoadenylate synthetases (OAS) upon activation by viral double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). Because mutations in RNase L have been implicated as risk factors for prostate cancer, we sought to determine if OAS activators are present in prostate cancer cells. We show that prostate cancer cell lines (PC3, LNCaP and DU145), but not normal prostate epithelial cells (PrEC), contain RNA fractions capable of binding to and activating OAS. To identify the RNA activators, we developed a cDNA cloning strategy based on stringent affinity of RNAs for OAS. We thus identified mRNAs for Raf kinase inhibitor protein (RKIP) and poly(rC)-binding protein 2 (PCBP2) that bind and potently activate OAS. In addition, human endogenous retrovirus (hERV) envelope RNAs were present in PC3 cells that bind and activate OAS. Analysis of several gene expression profiling studies indicated that PCBP2 RNA was consistently elevated in metastatic prostate cancer. Results suggest that OAS activation may occur in prostate cancer cells in vivo stimulated by cellular mRNAs for RKIP and PCBP2.
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MESH Headings
- 2',5'-Oligoadenylate Synthetase/metabolism
- Adenine Nucleotides/chemistry
- Cell Line, Tumor
- Cloning, Molecular
- Endogenous Retroviruses/genetics
- Enzyme Activation
- Gene Products, env/genetics
- Humans
- Male
- Oligoribonucleotides/chemistry
- Phosphatidylethanolamine Binding Protein/genetics
- Phosphatidylethanolamine Binding Protein/metabolism
- Prostate/metabolism
- Prostatic Neoplasms/enzymology
- Prostatic Neoplasms/genetics
- Prostatic Neoplasms/metabolism
- RNA, Messenger/genetics
- RNA, Messenger/isolation & purification
- RNA, Messenger/metabolism
- RNA, Neoplasm/genetics
- RNA, Neoplasm/isolation & purification
- RNA, Neoplasm/metabolism
- RNA, Viral/metabolism
- RNA-Binding Proteins/genetics
- RNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
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Affiliation(s)
- Ross J. Molinaro
- Department of Chemistry, Cleveland State UniversityEuclid Avenue at East 24th Street, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Babal Kant Jha
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Krishnamurthy Malathi
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
| | - Sooryanarayana Varambally
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School1400 E Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan Medical School1400 E Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Arul M. Chinnaiyan
- Department of Pathology, University of Michigan Medical School1400 E Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
- Department of Urology, University of Michigan Medical School1400 E Medical Center Drive, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, USA
| | - Robert H. Silverman
- Department of Cancer Biology, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- To whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel: +1 216 445 9650; Fax: +1 216 445 6269;
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15
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Wang Y, Xue SA, Hallden G, Francis J, Yuan M, Griffin BE, Lemoine NR. Virus-associated RNA I-deleted adenovirus, a potential oncolytic agent targeting EBV-associated tumors. Cancer Res 2005; 65:1523-31. [PMID: 15735041 DOI: 10.1158/0008-5472.can-04-3113] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Given the growing number of tumor types recognizably associated with EBV infection, it is critically important that therapeutic strategies are developed to treat such tumors. Replication-selective oncolytic adenoviruses represent a promising new platform for anticancer therapy. Virus-associated I (VAI) RNAs of adenoviruses are required for efficient translation of viral mRNAs. When the VAI gene is deleted, adenovirus replication is impeded in most cells (including HEK 293 cells). EBV-encoded small RNA1 is uniformly expressed in most EBV-associated human tumors and can functionally substitute for the VAI RNAs of adenovirus. It enables replication to proceed through complementation of VAI-deletion mutants. We hypothesized that VAI-deleted adenovirus would selectively replicate in EBV-positive tumor cells due to the presence of EBV-encoded small RNA1 with no (or poor) replication in normal or EBV-negative tumor cells. In this report, we show that high levels of replication occurred in the VAI-deleted mutant in the EBV-positive tumor cells compared with low (or negligible) levels in EBV-negative and normal human primary cells. Correspondingly, high toxicity levels were observed in EBV-positive tumor cells but not in EBV-negative tumor or normal human primary cells. In vivo, VAI-deleted adenovirus showed superior antitumoral efficacy to wild-type adenovirus in EBV-positive tumor xenografts, with lower hepatotoxicity than wild-type adenovirus. Our data suggest that VAI-deleted adenovirus is a promising replication-selective oncolytic virus with targeting specificity for EBV-associated tumors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yaohe Wang
- Cancer Research UK Molecular Oncology Unit, Institute of Cancer, Barts and the London School of Medicine and Dentistry, Queen Mary University of London, UK
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16
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Middeldorp JM, Brink AATP, van den Brule AJC, Meijer CJLM. Pathogenic roles for Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) gene products in EBV-associated proliferative disorders. Crit Rev Oncol Hematol 2003; 45:1-36. [PMID: 12482570 DOI: 10.1016/s1040-8428(02)00078-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 137] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is associated with a still growing spectrum of clinical disorders, ranging from acute and chronic inflammatory diseases to lymphoid and epithelial malignancies. Based on a combination of in vitro and in vivo findings, EBV is thought to contribute in the pathogenesis of these diseases. The different EBV gene expression patterns in the various disorders, suggest different EBV-mediated pathogenic mechanisms. In the following pages, an overview of the biology of EBV-infection is given and functional aspects of EBV-proteins are discussed and their putative role in the various EBV-associated disorders is described. EBV gene expression patterns and possible pathogenic mechanisms are discussed. In addition, expression of the cellular genes upregulated by EBV in vitro is discussed, and a comparison with the in vivo situation is made.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaap M Middeldorp
- Department of Pathology, Vrije Universiteit Medical Center, De Boelelaan 1117, 1081 HV Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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17
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Abstract
Viral infection of a host leads to induction of an immune system attack against the virus along with a counterattack by the virus against the host. Interferons are highly upregulated upon viral infection and function as key regulators of the host innate defense system. Whereas many RNA viruses are sensitive to the effects of interferon, several of the large DNA viruses are relatively resistant, given their capacity to encode proteins that disarms the host response. The herpesvirus family is a large and diverse family of viruses that infects vertebrates and invertebrates and possesses the ability to remain latent in their host for life. This paper summarizes the relationship between herpesviruses and interferon, including the ability of herpesviruses to induce interferon production, mechanisms by which interferon decreases herpesvirus replication, and strategies of herpesviruses to counteract these mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen L Mossman
- Centre for Gene Therapeutics, Department of Pathology and Molecular Medicine, McMaster University, Hamilton, Ontario, Canada.
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18
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Suzuki K, Yanagi M, Mori-Aoki A, Moriyama E, Ishii KJ, Kohn LD. Transfection of single-stranded hepatitis A virus RNA activates MHC class I pathway. Clin Exp Immunol 2002; 127:234-42. [PMID: 11876745 PMCID: PMC1906343 DOI: 10.1046/j.1365-2249.2002.01767.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 11/02/2001] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although infection of single-stranded RNA viruses can enhance expression of major histocompatibility complex (MHC) class I genes, the mechanism underlying this process remains unclear. Recent studies have indicated that exposure of non-immune cells to double-stranded deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA) of viral origin can directly increase the expression of MHC class I and related molecules without immune cell interaction. In this report, we show that transfection of single-stranded hepatitis A virus RNA into cultured hepatocytes results in the induction of genes for MHC class I, LMP2 and transporter for antigen processing (TAP1), in addition to the generation of viral proteins. We suggest that this stimulatory effect is due to the double-stranded RNA formed during replication of single-stranded viral RNA, and involves both double-stranded, RNA-dependent protein kinase PKR and the secretion of IFNbeta.
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MESH Headings
- ATP Binding Cassette Transporter, Subfamily B, Member 2
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/biosynthesis
- ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters/genetics
- Cells, Cultured/immunology
- DNA-Binding Proteins/metabolism
- Gene Expression Regulation, Viral
- Genes, MHC Class I
- Hepatitis A virus/genetics
- Hepatitis A virus/physiology
- Hepatoblastoma/pathology
- Hepatocytes/immunology
- Histocompatibility Antigens Class I/biosynthesis
- Humans
- I-kappa B Proteins
- Interferon-beta/metabolism
- Liver Neoplasms/pathology
- NF-kappa B/metabolism
- Neoplasm Proteins/biosynthesis
- Neoplasm Proteins/genetics
- Phosphorylation
- Protein Processing, Post-Translational
- RNA, Double-Stranded/genetics
- RNA, Double-Stranded/physiology
- RNA, Messenger/biosynthesis
- RNA, Viral/genetics
- RNA, Viral/physiology
- Transfection
- Tumor Cells, Cultured/immunology
- Viral Matrix Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Matrix Proteins/genetics
- Viral Proteins/biosynthesis
- Viral Proteins/genetics
- Virus Replication
- eIF-2 Kinase/physiology
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Affiliation(s)
- K Suzuki
- Cell Regulation Section, Metabolic Diseases Branch, National Institute of Diabetes and Digestive and Kidney Diseases, National Institutes of Health, Maryland, USA.
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19
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Abstract
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) is able to infect primary B-lymphocytes but usually does not proceed to replicate more virions. Instead, EBV persists as an incomplete virus and expresses 12 gene products that transform the growth of these cells into continuously proliferating lymphoblastoid cell lines. Because EBV is associated with several human malignancies, there is intense interest in delineating the molecular functions of these EBV gene products in transformation. This review focuses on the recombinant EBV technologies that have been developed to introduce specific mutations into EBV and test the functions of these EBV genes in primary B-lymphocyte growth transformation.
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Affiliation(s)
- K M Izumi
- Department of Microbiology, Harvard Medical School and Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, 857 Channing Laboratory, 181 Longwood Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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20
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Tanner JE, Alfieri C. The Epstein-Barr virus and post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease: interplay of immunosuppression, EBV, and the immune system in disease pathogenesis. Transpl Infect Dis 2001; 3:60-9. [PMID: 11395971 DOI: 10.1034/j.1399-3062.2001.003002060.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 101] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Transplant patients are at particular risk for developing post-transplant lymphoproliferative disease (PTLD) following administration of immunosuppressive therapy. In many cases the PTLD lesions express Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) latent and lytic genes as well as elevated levels of host cytokines. An outline of the potential contributions of EBV, host cytokines and T cells, and the immunosuppressive cyclosporine A, tacrolimus, and anti-CD3 antibody in the mechanism and pathogenesis of this disease is presented and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- J E Tanner
- Department of Pediatrics, Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario, University of Ottawa Medical School, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada
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21
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Ruf IK, Rhyne PW, Yang C, Cleveland JL, Sample JT. Epstein-Barr virus small RNAs potentiate tumorigenicity of Burkitt lymphoma cells independently of an effect on apoptosis. J Virol 2000; 74:10223-8. [PMID: 11024153 PMCID: PMC102063 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.21.10223-10228.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 89] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
The tumorigenic potential of the Burkitt lymphoma (BL) cell line Akata is dependent on the restricted latency program of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) that is characteristically maintained in BL tumors. Within these cells, EBV-mediated inhibition of apoptosis correlates with an up-regulation of BCL-2 levels in concert with a down-regulation in c-MYC expression that occurs under growth-limiting conditions. Here we addressed whether EBV's effects on apoptosis and tumorigenicity are mediated by the EBV small RNAs EBER-1 and EBER-2. Stable expression of the EBERs in EBV-negative Akata BL cells, at levels comparable to those in EBV-positive cells, significantly enhanced the tumorigenic potential of EBV-negative BL cells in SCID mice, but did not fully restore tumorigenicity relative to EBV-positive Akata cells. Furthermore, wild-type or greater levels of EBER expression in EBV-negative Akata cells did not promote BL cell survival. These data therefore suggest that EBV can contribute to BL through at least two avenues: an EBER-dependent mechanism that enhances tumorigenic potential independent of a direct effect on apoptosis, and a second mechanism, mediated by an as-yet-unidentified EBV gene(s), that offsets the proapoptotic consequences of deregulated c-MYC in BL.
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Affiliation(s)
- I K Ruf
- Program in Viral Oncogenesis and Tumor Immunology, Department of Virology and Molecular Biology, St. Jude Children's Research Hospital, Memphis, Tennessee 38105, USA
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22
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Goodbourn S, Didcock L, Randall RE. Interferons: cell signalling, immune modulation, antiviral response and virus countermeasures. J Gen Virol 2000; 81:2341-2364. [PMID: 10993923 DOI: 10.1099/0022-1317-81-10-2341] [Citation(s) in RCA: 749] [Impact Index Per Article: 31.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- S Goodbourn
- Department of Biochemistry and Immunology, St George's Hospital Medical School, University of London, London SW17 0RE, UK1
| | - L Didcock
- Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK2
| | - R E Randall
- Biomolecular Sciences Building, North Haugh, University of St Andrews, Fife KY16 9TS, UK2
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23
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Naganuma A, Nozaki A, Tanaka T, Sugiyama K, Takagi H, Mori M, Shimotohno K, Kato N. Activation of the interferon-inducible 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase gene by hepatitis C virus core protein. J Virol 2000; 74:8744-50. [PMID: 10954577 PMCID: PMC116387 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.74.18.8744-8750.2000] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The effects of hepatitis C virus (HCV) proteins on several signal transduction pathways in human nonneoplastic hepatocyte PH5CH8 cells were investigated using expression vectors encoding HCV proteins derived from HCV-infected human nonneoplastic cultured T-lymphocyte and hepatocyte cells (MT-2C and PH5CH7), which could support HCV replication. The amino acid sequences of HCV proteins obtained from HCV-infected human cells were identical or very close to the consensus sequences of the proteins derived from the original inoculum used for HCV infection. During the course of the study, we found that HCV core protein specifically activated the 40/46-kDa 2'-5'-oligoadenylate synthetase (2'-5'-OAS) gene promoter in a dose-dependent manner in different human hepatocyte cell lines (PH5CH8, HepG2, and PLC/PRF/5). We also found that the activation by core protein was further enhanced in the cells treated with alpha interferon. The expression of E1 or E2 envelope protein or nonstructural NS5A protein did not activate the 2'-5'-OAS gene promoter. We demonstrated that the activation by core protein in the hepatocyte cells was suppressed by antisense RNA complementary to core-encoding RNA. Deletion mutant analysis of core protein and deletion analysis of the 2'-5'-OAS gene promoter have been performed. Finally, we demonstrated that the activation of the 2'-5'-OAS gene occurred at the transcriptional level and furthermore demonstrated that the endogenous 2'-5'-OAS gene was also activated by core protein. This is the first report to show that a viral protein activated the 2'-5'-OAS gene.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Naganuma
- Virology and Glycobiology Division, National Cancer Center Research Institute, Chuo-ku, Tokyo 104-0045, Japan
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24
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Abstract
This review describes the diverse array of pathways and molecular targets that are used by viruses to elude immune detection and destruction. These include targeting of pathways for major histocompatibility complex-restricted antigen presentation, apoptosis, cytokine-mediated signaling, and humoral immune responses. The continuous interactions between host and pathogens during their coevolution have shaped the immune system, but also the counter measures used by pathogens. Further study of their interactions should improve our ability to manipulate and exploit the various pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Tortorella
- Department of Pathology, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
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