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Keating SM, Heitman JW, Wu S, Deng X, Stacey AR, Zahn RC, de la Rosa M, Finstad SL, Lifson JD, Piatak M, Gauduin MC, Kessler BM, Ternette N, Carville A, Johnson RP, Desrosiers RC, Letvin NL, Borrow P, Norris PJ, Schmitz JE. Magnitude and Quality of Cytokine and Chemokine Storm during Acute Infection Distinguish Nonprogressive and Progressive Simian Immunodeficiency Virus Infections of Nonhuman Primates. J Virol 2016; 90:10339-10350. [PMID: 27630228 PMCID: PMC5105668 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.01061-16] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2016] [Accepted: 08/24/2016] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Acute human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) infection represents a period of intense immune perturbation and activation of the host immune system. Study of the eclipse and viral expansion phases of infection is difficult in humans, but studies in nonprogressive and progressive nonhuman primate (NHP) infection models can provide significant insight into critical events occurring during this time. Cytokines, chemokines, and other soluble immune factors were measured in longitudinal samples from rhesus macaques infected with either SIVmac251 (progressive infection) or SIVmac239Δnef (attenuated/nonprogressive infection) and from African green monkeys infected with SIVsab9315BR (nonpathogenic infection). Levels of acute-phase peak viral replication were highest in SIVmac251 infection but correlated positively with viremia at 3 months postinfection in all three infection models. SIVmac251 infection was associated with stronger corresponding acute-phase cytokine/chemokine responses than the nonprogressive infections. The production of interleukin 15 (IL-15), IL-18, gamma interferon (IFN-γ), granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (G-CSF), monocyte chemoattractant protein 1 (MCP-1), macrophage inflammatory protein 1β (MIP-1β), and serum amyloid A protein (SAA) during acute SIVmac251 infection, but not during SIVmac239Δnef or SIVsab9315BR infection, correlated positively with chronic viremia at 3 months postinfection. Acute-phase production of MCP-1 correlated with viremia at 3 months postinfection in both nonprogressive infections. Finally, a positive correlation between the acute-phase area under the curve (AUC) for IL-6 and soluble CD40 ligand (sCD40L) and chronic viremia was observed only for the nonprogressive infection models. While we observed dynamic acute inflammatory immune responses in both progressive and nonprogressive SIV infections, the responses in the nonprogressive infections were not only lower in magnitude but also qualitatively different biomarkers of disease progression. IMPORTANCE NHP models of HIV infection constitute a powerful tool with which to study viral pathogenesis in order to gain critical information for a better understanding of HIV infection in humans. Here we studied progressive and nonprogressive simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) infection models in both natural and nonnatural host NHP species. Regardless of the pathogenicity of the virus infection and regardless of the NHP species studied, the magnitude of viremia, as measured by area under the curve, during the first 4 weeks of infection correlated positively with viremia in chronic infection. The magnitude of cytokine and chemokine responses during primary infection also correlated positively with both acute-phase and chronic viremia. However, the pattern and levels of specific cytokines and chemokines produced differed between nonprogressive and progressive SIV infection models. The qualitative differences in the early immune response in pathogenic and nonpathogenic infections identified here may be important determinants of the subsequent disease course.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila M Keating
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - John W Heitman
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Shiquan Wu
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Xutao Deng
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Andrea R Stacey
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Roland C Zahn
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maurus de la Rosa
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Samantha L Finstad
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Lifson
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Michael Piatak
- AIDS and Cancer Virus Program, Leidos Biomedical Research, Inc., Frederick National Laboratory for Cancer Research, Frederick, Maryland, USA
| | - Marie-Claire Gauduin
- Texas Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Virology and Immunology and Southwest National Primate Research Center, San Antonio, Texas, USA
| | - Benedikt M Kessler
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Target Discovery Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Nicola Ternette
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
- Target Discovery Institute, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Angela Carville
- Department of Primate Resources, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - R Paul Johnson
- Department of Immunology, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ronald C Desrosiers
- Department of Microbiology, New England Primate Research Center, Southborough, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Norman L Letvin
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Persephone Borrow
- Nuffield Department of Clinical Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom
| | - Philip J Norris
- Blood Systems Research Institute, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
- Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, California, USA
| | - Joern E Schmitz
- Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard University, Boston, Massachusetts, USA
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Abstract
The human AIDS viruses--HIV-1 and HIV-2--impose major burdens on the health and economic status of many developing countries. Surveys of other animal species have revealed that related viruses--the SIVs are widespread in a large number of African simian primates where they do not appear to cause disease. Phylogenetic analyses indicate that these SIVs are the reservoirs for the human viruses, with SIVsm from the sooty mangabey monkey the most likely source of HIV-2, and SIVcpz from the common chimpanzee the progenitor population for HIV-1. Although it is clear that AIDS has a zoonotic origin, it is less certain when HIV-1 and HIV-2 first entered human populations and whether cross-species viral transmission is common among primates. Within infected individuals the process of HIV evolution takes the form of an arms race, with the virus continually fixing mutations by natural selection which allow it to escape from host immune responses. The arms race is less intense in SIV-infected monkeys, where a weaker immune response generates less selective pressure on the virus. Such a difference in virus-host interaction, along with a broadening of co-receptor usage such that HIV strains are able to infect cells with both CCR5 and CXCR4 chemokine receptors, may explain the increased virulence of HIV in humans compared to SIV in other primates.
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Affiliation(s)
- E C Holmes
- Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, UK.
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Fultz PN, Vance PJ, Endres MJ, Tao B, Dvorin JD, Davis IC, Lifson JD, Montefiori DC, Marsh M, Malim MH, Hoxie JA. In vivo attenuation of simian immunodeficiency virus by disruption of a tyrosine-dependent sorting signal in the envelope glycoprotein cytoplasmic tail. J Virol 2001; 75:278-91. [PMID: 11119598 PMCID: PMC113922 DOI: 10.1128/jvi.75.1.278-291.2001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2000] [Accepted: 09/27/2000] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Attenuated simian immunodeficiency viruses (SIVs) have been described that produce low levels of plasma virion RNA and exhibit a reduced capacity to cause disease. These viruses are particularly useful in identifying viral determinants of pathogenesis. In the present study, we show that mutation of a highly conserved tyrosine (Tyr)-containing motif (Yxxphi) in the envelope glycoprotein (Env) cytoplasmic tail (amino acids YRPV at positions 721 to 724) can profoundly reduce the in vivo pathogenicity of SIVmac239. This domain constitutes both a potent endocytosis signal that reduces Env expression on infected cells and a sorting signal that directs Env expression to the basolateral surface of polarized cells. Rhesus macaques were inoculated with SIVmac239 control or SIVmac239 containing either a Tyr-721-to-Ile mutation (SIVmac239Y/I) or a deletion of Tyr-721 and the preceding glycine (DeltaGY). To assess the in vivo replication competence, all viruses contained a stop codon in nef that has been shown to revert during in vivo but not in vitro replication. All three control animals developed high viral loads and disease. One of two animals that received SIVmac239Y/I and two of three animals that received SIVmac239DeltaGY remained healthy for up to 140 weeks with low to undetectable plasma viral RNA levels and normal CD4(+) T-cell percentages. These animals exhibited ongoing viral replication as determined by detection of viral sequences and culturing of mutant viruses from peripheral blood mononuclear cells and persistent anti-SIV antibody titers. In one animal that received SIVmac239Y/I, the Ile reverted to a Tyr and was associated with a high plasma RNA level and disease, while one animal that received SIVmac239DeltaGY also developed a high viral load that was associated with novel and possibly compensatory mutations in the TM cytoplasmic domain. In all control and experimental animals, the nef stop codon reverted to an open reading frame within the first 2 months of inoculation, indicating that the mutant viruses had replicated well enough to repair this mutation. These findings indicate that the Yxxphi signal plays an important role in SIV pathogenesis. Moreover, because mutations in this motif may attenuate SIV through mechanisms that are distinct from those caused by mutations in nef, this Tyr-based sorting signal represents a novel target for future models of SIV and human immunodeficiency virus attenuation that could be useful in new vaccine strategies.
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Affiliation(s)
- P N Fultz
- Department of Microbiology, University of Alabama, Birmingham, Alabama 35294, USA
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