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Müller I, Alt P, Rajan S, Schaller L, Geiger F, Dietrich A. Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) Channels in Airway Toxicity and Disease: An Update. Cells 2022; 11:2907. [PMID: 36139480 PMCID: PMC9497104 DOI: 10.3390/cells11182907] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Our respiratory system is exposed to toxicants and pathogens from both sides: the airways and the vasculature. While tracheal, bronchial and alveolar epithelial cells form a natural barrier in the airways, endothelial cells protect the lung from perfused toxic compounds, particulate matter and invading microorganism in the vascular system. Damages induce inflammation by our immune response and wound healing by (myo)fibroblast proliferation. Members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) superfamily of ion channel are expressed in many cells of the respiratory tract and serve multiple functions in physiology and pathophysiology. TRP expression patterns in non-neuronal cells with a focus on TRPA1, TRPC6, TRPM2, TRPM5, TRPM7, TRPV2, TRPV4 and TRPV6 channels are presented, and their roles in barrier function, immune regulation and phagocytosis are summarized. Moreover, TRP channels as future pharmacological targets in chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), asthma, cystic and pulmonary fibrosis as well as lung edema are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | - Alexander Dietrich
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), LMU-Munich, Nussbaumstr. 26, 80336 Munich, Germany
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2
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Leidinger G, Flockerzi F, Hohneck J, Bohle RM, Fieguth A, Tschernig T. TRPC6 is altered in COVID-19 pneumonia. Chem Biol Interact 2022; 362:109982. [PMID: 35598647 PMCID: PMC9119708 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2022.109982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2022] [Revised: 04/25/2022] [Accepted: 05/09/2022] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
In this Letter to the Editor supportive data were presented to a recent paper published in this journal reporting the involvement of TRP channels in COVID-19 pneumonia and its role for new therapies. Since gene expression of TRP channels was found in human lung tissues the protein was not being reported so far. TRP channels are supposed to be involved in the pulmonary inflammation and its symptoms such as fever, cough and others. Here, TRPC6 was investigated in tissues of normal human lungs and of SARS-Cov-2 infected lungs in a preliminary study. Tissue was obtained post mortem from anatomical body donations during dissections and during pathological dissections (13 normal, 4 COVID-19 pneumoniae) and processed for immunohistochemistry. In normal lungs TRPC6 was found in the ciliated epithelium, in the wall of larger lung vessels and in the alveolar septa. In COVID-19 pneumonia the distribution of TRPC6 was different. Inflammatory lesions, cellular infiltrates, hyaline membranes and fibrosis were labelled intensively as well as dilated capillaries. These observations are from four patients with COVID-19 pneumonia.The observations do not elucidate the molecular mechanisms but support the view that TRPC6 channels are involved in normal physiology of normal human lungs and in COVID-19 pneumonia. TRPC6 might aggravate SARS-2 induced inflammation and could be a target for inhibiting drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gina Leidinger
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Fidelis Flockerzi
- Institute of Pathology, Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Johannes Hohneck
- Institute of Pathology, Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Rainer M Bohle
- Institute of Pathology, Saarland University Medical Center, Homburg, Saar, Germany
| | - Armin Fieguth
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Hanover Medical School, Hannover, Germany
| | - Thomas Tschernig
- Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, Saarland University, Homburg, Saar, Germany.
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3
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Watkins R, Perrott R, Bate S, Auton P, Watts S, Stoll A, Rutter S, Jugg B. Development of chlorine-induced lung injury in the anesthetized, spontaneously breathing pig. Toxicol Mech Methods 2021; 31:257-271. [PMID: 33929275 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2021.1906808] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
Chlorine is a toxic industrial chemical produced in vast quantities globally, being used in a range of applications such as water purification, sanitation and industrial processes. Its use and transport cannot be restricted; exposure may occur following accidental or deliberate releases. The OPCW recently verified the use of chlorine gas against civilians in both Syria and Iraq. Chlorine inhalation produces damage to the lungs, which may result in the development of an acute lung injury, respiratory failure and death. Treatment remains an intractable problem. Our objective was to develop a clinically relevant pre-clinical model of a moderate to severe lung injury in the pig. This would enable future assessment of therapeutic drugs or interventions to be implemented in the pre-hospital phase after exposure. Due to the irritant nature of chlorine, a number of strategies for exposing terminally anesthetized pigs needed to be investigated. A number of challenges (inconsistent acute changes in respiratory parameters; early deaths), resulted in a moderate to severe lung injury not being achieved. However, most pigs developed a mild lung injury by 12 h. Further investigation is required to optimize the model and enable the assessment of therapeutic candidates. In this paper we describe the exposure strategies used and discuss the challenges encountered in establishing a model of chlorine-induced lung injury. A key aim is to assist researchers navigating the challenges of producing a clinically relevant model of higher dose chlorine exposure where animal welfare is protected by use of terminal anesthesia.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Simon Bate
- CBR Division, Dstl Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
| | | | - Sarah Watts
- CBR Division, Dstl Porton Down, Salisbury, UK
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4
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Achanta S, Jordt SE. Transient receptor potential channels in pulmonary chemical injuries and as countermeasure targets. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2020; 1480:73-103. [PMID: 32892378 PMCID: PMC7933981 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.14472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2020] [Revised: 07/22/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
The lung is highly sensitive to chemical injuries caused by exposure to threat agents in industrial or transportation accidents, occupational exposures, or deliberate use as weapons of mass destruction (WMD). There are no antidotes for the majority of the chemical threat agents and toxic inhalation hazards despite their use as WMDs for more than a century. Among several putative targets, evidence for transient receptor potential (TRP) ion channels as mediators of injury by various inhalational chemical threat agents is emerging. TRP channels are expressed in the respiratory system and are essential for homeostasis. Among TRP channels, the body of literature supporting essential roles for TRPA1, TRPV1, and TRPV4 in pulmonary chemical injuries is abundant. TRP channels mediate their function through sensory neuronal and nonneuronal pathways. TRP channels play a crucial role in complex pulmonary pathophysiologic events including, but not limited to, increased intracellular calcium levels, signal transduction, recruitment of proinflammatory cells, neurogenic inflammatory pathways, cough reflex, hampered mucus clearance, disruption of the integrity of the epithelia, pulmonary edema, and fibrosis. In this review, we summarize the role of TRP channels in chemical threat agents-induced pulmonary injuries and how these channels may serve as medical countermeasure targets for broader indications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satyanarayana Achanta
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina
| | - Sven-Eric Jordt
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, North Carolina
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
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5
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Zhang X, Mao Z, Huang Y, Zhang Z, Yao J. Gap junctions amplify TRPV4 activation-initiated cell injury via modification of intracellular Ca 2+ and Ca 2+-dependent regulation of TXNIP. Channels (Austin) 2020; 14:246-256. [PMID: 32752916 PMCID: PMC7515575 DOI: 10.1080/19336950.2020.1803552] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
The elevated intracellular Ca2+ and oxidative stress are well-reported mechanisms behind renal tubular epithelial injury initiated by various insults. Given that TRPV4 and connexin43 (Cx43) channels are activated by a wide range of stimuli and regulate both intracellular Ca2+ and redox status, we speculated an involvement of these channels in renal tubular cell injury. Here, we tested this possibility and explored the potential underlying mechanisms. Our results demonstrated that exposure of renal tubular epithelial cells to aminoglycoside G418 led to cell death, which was attenuated by both TRPV4 and gap junction (Gj) inhibitor. Activation of TRPV4 caused cell damage, which was associated with an early increase in Cx43 expression and function. Inhibition of Cx43 with chemical inhibitor or siRNA largely prevented TRPV4 activation-induced cell damage. Further analysis revealed that TRPV4 agonists elicited a rise in intracellular Ca2+ and caused a Ca2+-dependent elevation in TXNIP (a negative regulator of the antioxidant thioredoxin). In the presence of Gj inhibitor, however, these effects of TRPV4 were largely prevented. The depletion of intracellular Ca2+ with Ca2+ chelator BAPTA-AM or downregulation of TXNIP with siRNA significantly alleviated TRPV4 activation-initiated cell injury. Collectively, our results point to a critical involvement of TRPV4/Cx43 channel interaction in renal tubular cell injury through mechanisms involving a synergetic induction of intracellular Ca2+ and oxidative stress. Channel interactions could be an important mechanism underlying cell injury. Targeting channels could have therapeutic potential for the treatment of acute tubular cell injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiling Zhang
- Department of Urology, The Fourth Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University , Shenyang, China.,Division of Molecular Signaling, Department of the Advanced Biomedical Research, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi , Chuo, Japan
| | - Zhimin Mao
- Division of Molecular Signaling, Department of the Advanced Biomedical Research, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi , Chuo, Japan
| | - Yanru Huang
- Division of Molecular Signaling, Department of the Advanced Biomedical Research, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi , Chuo, Japan
| | - Zhen Zhang
- Division of Molecular Signaling, Department of the Advanced Biomedical Research, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi , Chuo, Japan
| | - Jian Yao
- Division of Molecular Signaling, Department of the Advanced Biomedical Research, Interdisciplinary Graduate School of Medicine, University of Yamanashi , Chuo, Japan
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6
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Pesonen M, Vähäkangas K. Chloropicrin-induced toxicity in the respiratory system. Toxicol Lett 2020; 323:10-18. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2020.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/10/2019] [Revised: 01/17/2020] [Accepted: 01/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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7
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Choking agents and chlorine gas – History, pathophysiology, clinical effects and treatment. Toxicol Lett 2020; 320:73-79. [DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2019.12.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2019] [Revised: 12/02/2019] [Accepted: 12/03/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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8
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Achanta S, Jordt SE. Toxic effects of chlorine gas and potential treatments: a literature review. Toxicol Mech Methods 2019; 31:244-256. [PMID: 31532270 DOI: 10.1080/15376516.2019.1669244] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Chlorine gas is one of the highly produced chemicals in the USA and around the world. Chlorine gas has several uses in water purification, sanitation, and industrial applications; however, it is a toxic inhalation hazard agent. Inhalation of chlorine gas, based on the concentration and duration of the exposure, causes a spectrum of symptoms, including but not limited to lacrimation, rhinorrhea, bronchospasm, cough, dyspnea, acute lung injury, death, and survivors develop signs of pulmonary fibrosis and reactive airway disease. Despite the use of chlorine gas as a chemical warfare agent since World War I and its known potential as an industrial hazard, there is no specific antidote. The resurgence of the use of chlorine gas as a chemical warfare agent in recent years has brought speculation of its use as weapons of mass destruction. Therefore, developing antidotes for chlorine gas-induced lung injuries remains the need of the hour. While some of the pre-clinical studies have made substantial progress in the understanding of chlorine gas-induced pulmonary pathophysiology and identifying potential medical countermeasure(s), yet none of the drug candidates are approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In this review, we summarized pathophysiology of chlorine gas-induced pulmonary injuries, pre-clinical animal models, development of a pipeline of potential medical countermeasures under FDA animal rule, and future directions for the development of antidotes for chlorine gas-induced lung injuries.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Sven-Eric Jordt
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA.,Department of Pharmacology and Cancer Biology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC, USA
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9
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Büch TRH, Büch EAM, Boekhoff I, Steinritz D, Aigner A. Role of Chemosensory TRP Channels in Lung Cancer. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2018; 11:ph11040090. [PMID: 30248976 PMCID: PMC6316293 DOI: 10.3390/ph11040090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 09/16/2018] [Accepted: 09/18/2018] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels represent a large family of cation channels and many members of the TRP family have been shown to act as polymodal receptor molecules for irritative or potentially harmful substances. These chemosensory TRP channels have been extensively characterized in primary sensory and neuronal cells. However, in recent years the functional expression of these proteins in non-neuronal cells, e.g., in the epithelial lining of the respiratory tract has been confirmed. Notably, these proteins have also been described in a number of cancer types. As sensor molecules for noxious compounds, chemosensory TRP channels are involved in cell defense mechanisms and influence cell survival following exposure to toxic substances via the modulation of apoptotic signaling. Of note, a number of cytostatic drugs or drug metabolites can activate these TRP channels, which could affect the therapeutic efficacy of these cytostatics. Moreover, toxic inhalational substances with potential involvement in lung carcinogenesis are well established TRP activators. In this review, we present a synopsis of data on the expression of chemosensory TRP channels in lung cancer cells and describe TRP agonists and TRP-dependent signaling pathways with potential relevance to tumor biology. Furthermore, we discuss a possible role of TRP channels in the non-genomic, tumor-promoting effects of inhalational carcinogens such as cigarette smoke.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas R H Büch
- Rudolf Boehm-Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Pharmacology, Leipzig University, Haertelstrasse 16-18, D-04107 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Eva A M Büch
- Rudolf Boehm-Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Pharmacology, Leipzig University, Haertelstrasse 16-18, D-04107 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Ingrid Boekhoff
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilian University, D-80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Dirk Steinritz
- Walther Straub Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilian University, D-80336 Munich, Germany.
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Neuherbergstr. 11, D-80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Achim Aigner
- Rudolf Boehm-Institute for Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Pharmacology, Leipzig University, Haertelstrasse 16-18, D-04107 Leipzig, Germany.
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10
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Steinritz D, Stenger B, Dietrich A, Gudermann T, Popp T. TRPs in Tox: Involvement of Transient Receptor Potential-Channels in Chemical-Induced Organ Toxicity-A Structured Review. Cells 2018; 7:cells7080098. [PMID: 30087301 PMCID: PMC6115949 DOI: 10.3390/cells7080098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2018] [Revised: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 07/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Chemicals can exhibit significant toxic properties. While for most compounds, unspecific cell damaging processes are assumed, a plethora of chemicals exhibit characteristic odors, suggesting a more specific interaction with the human body. During the last few years, G-protein-coupled receptors and especially chemosensory ion channels of the transient receptor potential family (TRP channels) were identified as defined targets for several chemicals. In some cases, TRP channels were suggested as being causal for toxicity. Therefore, these channels have moved into the spotlight of toxicological research. In this review, we screened available literature in PubMed that deals with the role of chemical-sensing TRP channels in specific organ systems. TRPA1, TRPM and TRPV channels were identified as essential chemosensors in the nervous system, the upper and lower airways, colon, pancreas, bladder, skin, the cardiovascular system, and the eyes. Regarding TRP channel subtypes, A1, M8, and V1 were found most frequently associated with toxicity. They are followed by V4, while other TRP channels (C1, C4, M5) are only less abundantly expressed in this context. Moreover, TRPA1, M8, V1 are co-expressed in most organs. This review summarizes organ-specific toxicological roles of TRP channels.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Steinritz
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany.
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Bernhard Stenger
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany.
| | - Alexander Dietrich
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Tanja Popp
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany.
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
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11
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TRPA1 channels: expression in non-neuronal murine lung tissues and dispensability for hyperoxia-induced alveolar epithelial hyperplasia. Pflugers Arch 2018; 470:1231-1241. [PMID: 29754249 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-018-2148-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/05/2018] [Revised: 03/22/2018] [Accepted: 04/27/2018] [Indexed: 01/31/2023]
Abstract
Transient receptor potential A1 (TRPA1) channels were originally characterized in neuronal tissues but also identified in lung epithelium by staining with fluorescently coupled TRPA1 antibodies. Its exact function in non-neuronal tissues, however, is elusive. TRPA1 is activated in vitro by hypoxia and hyperoxia and is therefore a promising TRP candidate for sensing hyperoxia in pulmonary epithelial cells and for inducing alveolar epithelial hyperplasia. Here, we isolated tracheal, bronchial, and alveolar epithelial cells and show low but detectable TRPA1 mRNA levels in all these cells as well as TRPA1 protein by Western blotting in alveolar type II (AT II) cells. We quantified changes in intracellular Ca2+ ([Ca2+]i) levels induced by application of hyperoxic solutions in primary tracheal epithelial, bronchial epithelial, and AT II cells isolated from wild-type (WT) and TRPA1-deficient (TRPA1-/-) mouse lungs. In all cell types, we detected hyperoxia-induced rises in [Ca2+]i levels, which were not significantly different in TRPA1-deficient cells compared to WT cells. We also tested TRPA1 function in a mouse model for hyperoxia-induced alveolar epithelial hyperplasia. A characteristic significant increase in thickening of alveolar tissues was detected in mouse lungs after exposure to hyperoxia, but not in normoxic WT and TRPA1-/- controls. Quantification of changes in lung morphology in hyperoxic WT and TRPA1-/- mice, however, again revealed no significant changes. Therefore, TRPA1 expression does neither appear to be a key player for hyperoxia-induced changes in [Ca2+]i levels in primary lung epithelial cells, nor being essential for the development of hyperoxia-induced alveolar epithelial hyperplasia.
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12
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Achanta S, Chintagari NR, Brackmann M, Balakrishna S, Jordt SE. TRPA1 and CGRP antagonists counteract vesicant-induced skin injury and inflammation. Toxicol Lett 2018. [PMID: 29535050 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2018.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/17/2022]
Abstract
The skin is highly sensitive to the chemical warfare agent in mustard gas, sulfur mustard (SM) that initiates a delayed injury response characterized by erythema, inflammation and severe vesication (blistering). Although SM poses a continuing threat, used as recently as in the Syrian conflict, no mechanism-based antidotes against SM are available. Recent studies demonstrated that Transient Receptor Potential Ankyrin 1 (TRPA1), a chemosensory cation channel in sensory nerves innervating the skin, is activated by SM and 2-chloroethyl ethyl sulfide (CEES), an SM analog, in vitro, suggesting it may promote vesicant injury. Here, we investigated the effects of TRPA1 inhibitors, and an inhibitor of Calcitonin Gene Related Peptide (CGRP), a neurogenic inflammatory peptide released upon TRPA1 activation, in a CEES-induced mouse ear vesicant model (CEES-MEVM). TRPA1 inhibitors (HC-030031 and A-967079) and a CGRP inhibitor (MK-8825) reduced skin edema, pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, CXCL1/KC), MMP-9, a protease implicated in skin damage, and improved histopathological outcomes. These findings suggest that TRPA1 and neurogenic inflammation contribute to the deleterious effects of vesicants in vivo, activated either directly by alkylation, or indirectly, by reactive intermediates or pro-inflammatory mediators. TRPA1 and CGRP inhibitors represent new leads that could be considered for validation and further development in other vesicant injury models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Satyanarayana Achanta
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA
| | | | - Marian Brackmann
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Shrilatha Balakrishna
- Department of Pharmacology, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Sven-Eric Jordt
- Department of Anesthesiology, Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC 27710, USA.
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Li W, Pauluhn J. Phosgene-induced acute lung injury (ALI): differences from chlorine-induced ALI and attempts to translate toxicology to clinical medicine. Clin Transl Med 2017; 6:19. [PMID: 28577109 PMCID: PMC5457389 DOI: 10.1186/s40169-017-0149-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/14/2017] [Accepted: 05/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Phosgene (carbonyl dichloride) gas is an indispensable chemical inter-mediate used in numerous industrial processes. There is no clear consensus as to its time- and inhaled-dose-dependent etiopathologies and associated preventive or therapeutic treatment strategies. METHODS Cardiopulmonary function was examined in rats exposed by inhalation to the alveolar irritant phosgene or to the airway irritant chlorine during and following exposure. Terminal measurements focused on hematology, protein extravasation in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL), and increased lung weight. Noninvasive diagnostic and prognostic endpoints in exhaled breath (carbon dioxide and nitric oxide) were used to detect the clinically occult stage of pulmonary edema. RESULTS The first event observed in rats following high but sublethal acute exposure to phosgene was the stimulation of alveolar nociceptive vagal receptors. This afferent stimulation resulted in dramatic changes in cardiopulmonary functions, ventilation: perfusion imbalances, and progressive pulmonary edema and phospholipoproteinosis. Hematology revealed hemoconcentration to be an early marker of pulmonary edema and fibrin as a discriminating endpoint that was positive for the airway irritant chlorine and negative for the alveolar irritant phosgene. CONCLUSIONS The application of each gas produced typical ALI/ARDS (acute lung injury/acute respiratory distress syndrome) characteristics. Phosgene-induced ALI showed evidence of persistent apnea periods, bradycardia, and shifts of vascular fluid from the peripheral to the pulmonary circulation. Carbon dioxide in expired gas was suggestive of increased ventilation dead space and appeared to be a harbinger of progressively developing lung edema. Treatment with the iNOS inhibitor aminoguanidine aerosol by inhalation reduced the severity of phosgene-induced ALI when applied at low dose-rates. Symptomatic treatment regimens were considered inferior to causal modes of treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wenli Li
- 4th Department of Toxicology, Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 Shaanxi Province China
| | - Juergen Pauluhn
- 4th Department of Toxicology, Fourth Military Medical University, No. 169 Changle West Road, Xi’an, 710032 Shaanxi Province China
- Covestro Deutschland AG, Global Phosgene Steering Group, K9, 565, 51365 Leverkusen, Germany
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14
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Steinritz D, Zehfuß F, Stenger B, Schmidt A, Popp T, Kehe K, Mückter H, Thiermann H, Gudermann T. Zinc chloride-induced TRPA1 activation does not contribute to toxicity in vitro. Toxicol Lett 2017; 293:133-139. [PMID: 28919489 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2017.09.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/19/2017] [Revised: 09/13/2017] [Accepted: 09/13/2017] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The hygroscopic zinc chloride (ZnCl2) is often used to generate smoke screens. Severe adverse pulmonary health effects have been associated with inhalation of ZnCl2 smokes. The underlying molecular toxicology is not known. Recent studies have shown that the Transient Receptor Potential Channel A1 (TRPA1) is important for sensing toxic chemicals. TRPA1 was shown to be activated by Zn2+ which was linked to pain and inflammation. In the present study, we investigated whether TRPA1 activation contributes to ZnCl2-mediated toxicity in vitro. HEK wildtype (HEK-wt), TRPA1 overexpressing HEK (HEK-A1) and A549 lung cells, endogenously expressing TRPA1, were exposed to ZnCl2. Changes of intracellular calcium levels [Ca2+]i and cell viability were assessed after ZnCl2 exposure in all cell types, without or with TRPA1 inhibition. ZnCl2 increased [Ca2+]i through TRPA1 channels in a complex manner in both HEK-A1 and A549 cells while HEK-wt did not respond to ZnCl2. There was no difference in toxicity between HEK-wt and HEK-A1 cells after ZnCl2 exposure. Inhibition of TRPA1 did not influence toxicity in all investigated cells. Thus, our in vitro results support the assumption that TRPA1 does not primarily mediate toxicity of ZnCl2 and does probably not represent a therapeutic target to abate ZnCl2 toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dirk Steinritz
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany; Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany.
| | - Franziska Zehfuß
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Bernhard Stenger
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany; Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Annette Schmidt
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany; Bundeswehr University Munich, Faculty of Human Sciences, 85577 Neubiberg, Germany
| | - Tanja Popp
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany; Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Kai Kehe
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Bundeswehr Medical Academy, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Harald Mückter
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany; Institute for Cardiovascular Prevention (IPEK), Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität Munich, 80336 Munich, Germany
| | - Horst Thiermann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Bundeswehr Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, 80937 Munich, Germany
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15
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Dietrich A, Steinritz D, Gudermann T. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels as molecular targets in lung toxicology and associated diseases. Cell Calcium 2017; 67:123-137. [PMID: 28499580 DOI: 10.1016/j.ceca.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 04/21/2017] [Accepted: 04/21/2017] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The lungs as the gateways of our body to the external environment are essential for gas exchange. They are also exposed to toxicants from two sides, the airways and the vasculature. Apart from naturally produced toxic agents, millions of human made chemicals were produced since the beginning of the industrial revolution whose toxicity still needs to be determined. While the knowledge about toxic substances is increasing only slowly, a paradigm shift regarding the proposed mechanisms of toxicity at the plasma membrane emerged. According to their broad-range chemical reactivity, the mechanism of lung injury evoked by these agents has long been described as rather unspecific. Consequently, therapeutic options are still restricted to symptomatic treatment. The identification of molecular down-stream effectors in cells was a major step forward in the mechanistic understanding of the action of toxic chemicals and will pave the way for more causal and specific toxicity testing as well as therapeutic options. In this context, the involvement of Transient Receptor Potential (TRP) channels as chemosensors involved in the detection and effectors of toxicant action is an attractive concept intensively discussed in the scientific community. In this review we will summarize recent evidence for an involvement of TRP channels (TRPA1, TRPC4, TRPC6, TRPV1, TRPV4, TRPM2 and TRPM8) expressed in the lung in pathways of toxin sensing and as mediators of lung inflammation and associated diseases like asthma, COPD, lung fibrosis and edema formation. Specific modulators of these channels may offer new therapeutic options in the future and will endorse strategies for a causal, specifically tailored treatment based on the mechanistic understanding of molecular events induced by lung-toxic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander Dietrich
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), LMU Munich, Germany.
| | - Dirk Steinritz
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), LMU Munich, Germany; Bundeswehr-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Munich, Germany
| | - Thomas Gudermann
- Walther-Straub-Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Member of the German Center for Lung Research (DZL), LMU Munich, Germany
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16
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TRPA1 mediates changes in heart rate variability and cardiac mechanical function in mice exposed to acrolein. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 324:51-60. [PMID: 27746315 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/18/2016] [Revised: 09/07/2016] [Accepted: 10/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Short-term exposure to ambient air pollution is linked with adverse cardiovascular effects. While previous research focused primarily on particulate matter-induced responses, gaseous air pollutants also contribute to cause short-term cardiovascular effects. Mechanisms underlying such effects have not been adequately described, however the immediate nature of the response suggests involvement of irritant neural activation and downstream autonomic dysfunction. Thus, this study examines the role of TRPA1, an irritant sensory receptor found in the airways, in the cardiac response of mice to acrolein and ozone. Conscious unrestrained wild-type C57BL/6 (WT) and TRPA1 knockout (KO) mice implanted with radiotelemeters were exposed once to 3ppm acrolein, 0.3ppm ozone, or filtered air. Heart rate (HR) and electrocardiogram (ECG) were recorded continuously before, during and after exposure. Analysis of ECG morphology, incidence of arrhythmia and heart rate variability (HRV) were performed. Cardiac mechanical function was assessed using a Langendorff perfusion preparation 24h post-exposure. Acrolein exposure increased HRV independent of HR, as well as incidence of arrhythmia. Acrolein also increased left ventricular developed pressure in WT mice at 24h post-exposure. Ozone did not produce any changes in cardiac function. Neither gas produced ECG effects, changes in HRV, arrhythmogenesis, or mechanical function in KO mice. These data demonstrate that a single exposure to acrolein causes cardiac dysfunction through TRPA1 activation and autonomic imbalance characterized by a shift toward parasympathetic modulation. Furthermore, it is clear from the lack of ozone effects that although gaseous irritants are capable of eliciting immediate cardiac changes, gas concentration and properties play important roles.
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17
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Weinberger B, Malaviya R, Sunil VR, Venosa A, Heck DE, Laskin JD, Laskin DL. Mustard vesicant-induced lung injury: Advances in therapy. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2016; 305:1-11. [PMID: 27212445 PMCID: PMC5119915 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2016.05.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2016] [Accepted: 05/18/2016] [Indexed: 01/17/2023]
Abstract
Most mortality and morbidity following exposure to vesicants such as sulfur mustard is due to pulmonary toxicity. Acute injury is characterized by epithelial detachment and necrosis in the pharynx, trachea and bronchioles, while long-term consequences include fibrosis and, in some instances, cancer. Current therapies to treat mustard poisoning are primarily palliative and do not target underlying pathophysiologic mechanisms. New knowledge about vesicant-induced pulmonary disease pathogenesis has led to the identification of potentially efficacious strategies to reduce injury by targeting inflammatory cells and mediators including reactive oxygen and nitrogen species, proteases and proinflammatory/cytotoxic cytokines. Therapeutics under investigation include corticosteroids, N-acetyl cysteine, which has both mucolytic and antioxidant properties, inducible nitric oxide synthase inhibitors, liposomes containing superoxide dismutase, catalase, and/or tocopherols, protease inhibitors, and cytokine antagonists such as anti-tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α antibody and pentoxifylline. Antifibrotic and fibrinolytic treatments may also prove beneficial in ameliorating airway obstruction and lung remodeling. More speculative approaches include inhibitors of transient receptor potential channels, which regulate pulmonary epithelial cell membrane permeability, non-coding RNAs and mesenchymal stem cells. As mustards represent high priority chemical threat agents, identification of effective therapeutics for mitigating toxicity is highly significant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Barry Weinberger
- Division of Neonatal and Perinatal Medicine, Hofstra Northwell School of Medicine, Cohen Children's Medical Center of New York, New Hyde Park, NY 11040, USA.
| | - Rama Malaviya
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Vasanthi R Sunil
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Alessandro Venosa
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Diane E Heck
- Department of Environmental Health Science, New York Medical College, School of Public Health, Valhalla, NY 10595, USA
| | - Jeffrey D Laskin
- Department of Environmental and Occupational Health, School of Public Health, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
| | - Debra L Laskin
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, Piscataway, NJ 08854, USA
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18
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Ahmad S, Ahmad A. Emerging targets for treating sulfur mustard-induced injuries. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2016; 1374:123-31. [PMID: 27285828 DOI: 10.1111/nyas.13095] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2016] [Revised: 04/12/2016] [Accepted: 04/18/2016] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Sulfur mustard (SM; bis-(2-chlororethyl) sulfide) is a highly reactive, potent warfare agent that has recently reemerged as a major threat to military and civilians. Exposure to SM is often fatal, primarily due to pulmonary injuries and complications caused by its inhalation. Profound inflammation, hypercoagulation, and oxidative stress are the hallmarks that define SM-induced pulmonary toxicities. Despite advances, effective therapies are still limited. This current review focuses on inflammatory and coagulation pathways that influence the airway pathophysiology of SM poisoning and highlights the complexity of developing an effective therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shama Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, School of Medicine, the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham, Alabama
| | - Aftab Ahmad
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Division of Molecular and Translational Biomedicine, School of Medicine, the University of Alabama at Birmingham (UAB), Birmingham, Alabama
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19
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Andres D, Keyser B, Benton B, Melber A, Olivera D, Holmes W, Paradiso D, Anderson D, Ray R. Transient receptor potential (TRP) channels as a therapeutic target for intervention of respiratory effects and lethality from phosgene. Toxicol Lett 2015; 244:21-27. [PMID: 26562769 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.11.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2015] [Revised: 11/03/2015] [Accepted: 11/05/2015] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Phosgene (CG), a toxic inhalation and industrial hazard, causes bronchoconstriction, vasoconstriction and associated pathological effects that could be life threatening. Ion channels of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family have been identified to act as specific chemosensory molecules in the respiratory tract in the detection, control of adaptive responses and initiation of detrimental signaling cascades upon exposure to various toxic inhalation hazards (TIH); their activation due to TIH exposure may result in broncho- and vasoconstriction. We studied changes in the regulation of intracellular free Ca(2+) concentration ([Ca(2+)]i) in cultures of human bronchial smooth muscle cells (BSMC) and human pulmonary microvascular endothelial cells (HPMEC) exposed to CG (16ppm, 8min), using an air/liquid interface exposure system. CG increased [Ca(2+)]i (p<0.05) in both cell types, The CG-induced [Ca(2+)]i was blocked (p<0.05) by two types of TRP channel blockers, SKF-96365, a general TRP channel blocker, and RR, a general TRPV (vanilloid type) blocker, in both BSMC and HPMEC. These effects correlate with the in vivo efficacies of these compounds to protect against lung injury and 24h lethality from whole body CG inhalation exposure in mice (8-10ppm×20min). Thus the TRP channel mechanism appears to be a potential target for intervention in CG toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Devon Andres
- Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA.
| | - Brian Keyser
- Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Betty Benton
- Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Ashley Melber
- Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Dorian Olivera
- Analytical Toxicology Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Wesley Holmes
- Analytical Toxicology Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Danielle Paradiso
- Analytical Toxicology Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Dana Anderson
- Analytical Toxicology Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA
| | - Radharaman Ray
- Research Division, U.S. Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, USA.
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20
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Holmes WW, Keyser BM, Paradiso DC, Ray R, Andres DK, Benton BJ, Rothwell CC, Hoard-Fruchey HM, Dillman JF, Sciuto AM, Anderson DR. Conceptual approaches for treatment of phosgene inhalation-induced lung injury. Toxicol Lett 2015; 244:8-20. [PMID: 26562770 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2015.10.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2015] [Revised: 10/01/2015] [Accepted: 10/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Toxic industrial chemicals are used throughout the world to produce everyday products such as household and commercial cleaners, disinfectants, pesticides, pharmaceuticals, plastics, paper, and fertilizers. These chemicals are produced, stored, and transported in large quantities, which poses a threat to the local civilian population in cases of accidental or intentional release. Several of these chemicals have no known medical countermeasures for their toxic effects. Phosgene is a highly toxic industrial chemical which was used as a chemical warfare agent in WWI. Exposure to phosgene causes latent, non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema which can result in respiratory failure and death. The mechanisms of phosgene-induced pulmonary injury are not fully identified, and currently there is no efficacious countermeasure. Here, we provide a proposed mechanism of phosgene-induced lung injury based on the literature and from studies conducted in our lab, as well as provide results from studies designed to evaluate survival efficacy of potential therapies following whole-body phosgene exposure in mice. Several therapies were able to significantly increase 24h survival following an LCt50-70 exposure to phosgene; however, no treatment was able to fully protect against phosgene-induced mortality. These studies provide evidence that mortality following phosgene toxicity can be mitigated by neuro- and calcium-regulators, antioxidants, phosphodiesterase and endothelin receptor antagonists, angiotensin converting enzymes, and transient receptor potential cation channel inhibitors. However, because the mechanism of phosgene toxicity is multifaceted, we conclude that a single therapeutic is unlikely to be sufficient to ameliorate the multitude of direct and secondary toxic effects caused by phosgene inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wesley W Holmes
- Analytical Toxicology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States.
| | - Brian M Keyser
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Danielle C Paradiso
- Analytical Toxicology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Radharaman Ray
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Devon K Andres
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Betty J Benton
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Cristin C Rothwell
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Heidi M Hoard-Fruchey
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - James F Dillman
- Research Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Alfred M Sciuto
- Analytical Toxicology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States
| | - Dana R Anderson
- Analytical Toxicology Division, US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense, 2900 Ricketts Point Road, Aberdeen Proving Ground, MD 21010-5400, United States.
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21
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Zholos AV. TRP Channels in Respiratory Pathophysiology: the Role of Oxidative, Chemical Irritant and Temperature Stimuli. Curr Neuropharmacol 2015; 13:279-91. [PMID: 26411771 PMCID: PMC4598440 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x13666150331223118] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2015] [Revised: 03/09/2015] [Accepted: 03/09/2015] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
There is rapidly growing evidence indicating multiple and important roles of Ca(2+)- permeable cation TRP channels in the airways, both under normal and disease conditions. The aim of this review was to summarize the current knowledge of TRP channels in sensing oxidative, chemical irritant and temperature stimuli by discussing expression and function of several TRP channels in relevant cell types within the respiratory tract, ranging from sensory neurons to airway smooth muscle and epithelial cells. Several of these channels, such as TRPM2, TRPM8, TRPA1 and TRPV1, are discussed in much detail to show that they perform diverse, and often overlapping or contributory, roles in airway hyperreactivity, inflammation, asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease and other respiratory disorders. These include TRPM2 involvement in the disruption of the bronchial epithelial tight junctions during oxidative stress, important roles of TRPA1 and TRPV1 channels in airway inflammation, hyperresponsiveness, chronic cough, and hyperplasia of airway smooth muscles, as well as TRPM8 role in COPD and mucus hypersecretion. Thus, there is increasing evidence that TRP channels not only function as an integral part of the important endogenous protective mechanisms of the respiratory tract capable of detecting and ensuring proper physiological responses to various oxidative, chemical irritant and temperature stimuli, but that altered expression, activation and regulation of these channels may also contribute to the pathogenesis of respiratory diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alexander V Zholos
- Department of Biophysics, Educational and Scientific Centre "Institute of Biology", Taras Shevchenko Kiev National University, 2 Academician Glushkov Avenue, Kiev 03022, Ukraine.
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22
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Luo S, Pauluhn J, Trübel H, Wang C. Corticosteroids found ineffective for phosgene-induced acute lung injury in rats. Toxicol Lett 2014; 229:85-92. [PMID: 24910984 DOI: 10.1016/j.toxlet.2014.06.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2014] [Revised: 06/02/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2014] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Various therapeutic regimes have been proposed with limited success for treatment of phosgene-induced acute lung injury (P-ALI). Corticoids were shown to be efficacious against chlorine-induced lung injury but there is still controversy whether this applies also to P-ALI. This study investigates whether different regimen of curatively administered budesonide (BUD, 10 mg/kg bw, i.p. bid; 100 mg/m(3)×30 min, nose-only inhalation), mometasone (MOM, 3 mg/kg bw, i.p. bid) and dexamethasone (DEX, 10, 30 mg/kg bw, i.p. bid), show efficacy to alleviate P-ALI. Efficacy of drugs was judged by nitric oxide (eNO) and carbon dioxide (eCO2) in exhaled air and whether these non-invasive biomarkers are suitable to assess the degree of airway injury (chlorine) relative to alveolar injury (phosgene). P-ALI related analyses included lung function (enhanced pause, Penh), morbidity, increased lung weights, and protein in bronchial alveolar lavage fluid (BALF) one day postexposure. One of the pathophysiological hallmarks of P-ALI was indicated by increased Penh lasting for approximately 20 h postexposure. Following the administration of BUD, this increase could be suppressed; however, without significant improvement in survival and lung edema (increased lung weights and BALF-protein). Collectively, protocols shown to be efficacious for chlorine (Chen et al., 2013) were ineffective and even increased adversity in the P-ALI model. This outcome warrants further study to seek for early biomarkers suitable to differentiate chlorine- and phosgene-induced acute lung injury at yet asymptomatic stage. The patterns of eNO and eCO2 observed following exposure to chlorine and phosgene may be suitable to guide the specialized clinical interventions required for each type of ALI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sa Luo
- Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Beijing Chao-Yang Hospital, Capital Medical University, Beijing 100069, China; Department of Toxicology, Bayer Pharma AG, 42096 Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Jürgen Pauluhn
- Department of Toxicology, Bayer Pharma AG, 42096 Wuppertal, Germany.
| | - Hubert Trübel
- Department of Pharmacology Vascular Diseases, Cardiology & Hematology, Bayer Pharma AG, 42096 Wuppertal, Germany
| | - Chen Wang
- Beijing Institute of Respiratory Medicine, Capital Medical University, Beijing Hospital, Ministry of Health, Beijing 100730, China.
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23
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Massa CB, Scott P, Abramova E, Gardner C, Laskin DL, Gow AJ. Acute chlorine gas exposure produces transient inflammation and a progressive alteration in surfactant composition with accompanying mechanical dysfunction. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2014; 278:53-64. [PMID: 24582687 DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2014.02.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/30/2013] [Revised: 01/29/2014] [Accepted: 02/04/2014] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Acute Cl2 exposure following industrial accidents or military/terrorist activity causes pulmonary injury and severe acute respiratory distress. Prior studies suggest that antioxidant depletion is important in producing dysfunction, however a pathophysiologic mechanism has not been elucidated. We propose that acute Cl2 inhalation leads to oxidative modification of lung lining fluid, producing surfactant inactivation, inflammation and mechanical respiratory dysfunction at the organ level. C57BL/6J mice underwent whole-body exposure to an effective 60ppm-hour Cl2 dose, and were euthanized 3, 24 and 48h later. Whereas pulmonary architecture and endothelial barrier function were preserved, transient neutrophilia, peaking at 24h, was noted. Increased expression of ARG1, CCL2, RETLNA, IL-1b, and PTGS2 genes was observed in bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) cells with peak change in all genes at 24h. Cl2 exposure had no effect on NOS2 mRNA or iNOS protein expression, nor on BAL NO3(-) or NO2(-). Expression of the alternative macrophage activation markers, Relm-α and mannose receptor was increased in alveolar macrophages and pulmonary epithelium. Capillary surfactometry demonstrated impaired surfactant function, and altered BAL phospholipid and surfactant protein content following exposure. Organ level respiratory function was assessed by forced oscillation technique at 5 end expiratory pressures. Cl2 exposure had no significant effect on either airway or tissue resistance. Pulmonary elastance was elevated with time following exposure and demonstrated PEEP refractory derecruitment at 48h, despite waning inflammation. These data support a role for surfactant inactivation as a physiologic mechanism underlying respiratory dysfunction following Cl2 inhalation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher B Massa
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA
| | - Pamela Scott
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA
| | - Elena Abramova
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA
| | - Carol Gardner
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA
| | - Debra L Laskin
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA
| | - Andrew J Gow
- Department of Pharmacology & Toxicology, Ernest Mario School of Pharmacy, Rutgers University, USA.
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24
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Büch TRH, Schäfer EAM, Demmel MT, Boekhoff I, Thiermann H, Gudermann T, Steinritz D, Schmidt A. Functional expression of the transient receptor potential channel TRPA1, a sensor for toxic lung inhalants, in pulmonary epithelial cells. Chem Biol Interact 2013; 206:462-71. [PMID: 23994502 DOI: 10.1016/j.cbi.2013.08.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2013] [Revised: 08/19/2013] [Accepted: 08/22/2013] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
The cation channel TRPA1 functions as a chemosensory protein and is directly activated by a number of noxious inhalants. A pulmonary expression of TRPA1 has been described in sensory nerve endings and its stimulation leads to the acceleration of inflammatory responses in the lung. Whereas the function of TRPA1 in neuronal cells is well defined, only few reports exist suggesting a role in epithelial cells. The aim of the present study was therefore (1) to evaluate the expression of TRPA1 in pulmonary epithelial cell lines, (2) to characterize TRPA1-promoted signaling in these cells, and (3) to study the extra-neuronal expression of this channel in lung tissue sections. Our results revealed that the widely used alveolar type II cell line A549 expresses TRPA1 at the mRNA and protein level. Furthermore, stimulating A549 cells with known TRPA1 activators (i.e., allyl isothiocyanate) led to an increase in intracellular calcium levels, which was sensitive to the TRPA1 blocker ruthenium red. Investigating TRPA1 coupled downstream signaling cascades it was found that TRPA1 activation elicited a stimulation of ERK1/2 whereas other MAP kinases were not affected. Finally, using epithelial as well as neuronal markers in immunohistochemical approaches, a non-neuronal TRPA1 protein expression was detected in distal parts of the porcine lung epithelium, which was also found examining human lung sections. TRPA1-positive staining co-localized with both epithelial and neuronal markers underlining the observed epithelial expression pattern. Our findings of a functional expression of TRPA1 in pulmonary epithelial cells provide causal evidence for a non-neuronal TRPA1-mediated control of inflammatory responses elicited upon TRPA1-mediated registration of toxic inhalants in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Robert Heinrich Büch
- Rudolf-Boehm Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Clinical Pharmacology, University Leipzig, Härtelstraße 16-18, 04107 Leipzig, Germany
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