Immunomodulatory properties of defensins and cathelicidins

Role of antimicrobial peptide cathelicidin in thrombosis and thromboinflammation

Thrombosis is a frequent cause of cardiovascular mortality and hospitalization. Current antithrombotic strategies, however, target both thrombosis and physiological hemostasis and thereby increase bleeding risk. In recent years the pathophysiological understanding of thrombus formation has significantly advanced and inflammation has become a crucial element. Neutrophils as most frequent immune cells in the blood and their released mediators play a key role herein. Neutrophil-derived cathelicidin next to its strong antimicrobial properties has also shown to modulates thrombosis and thus presents a potential therapeutic target. In this article we review direct and indirect (immune- and endothelial cell-mediated) effects of cathelicidin on platelets and the coagulation system. Further we discuss its implications for large vessel thrombosis and consecutive thromboinflammation as well as immunothrombosis in sepsis and COVID-19 and give an outlook for potential therapeutic prospects.

Omptin Proteases of Enterobacterales Show Conserved Regulation by the PhoPQ Two-Component System but Exhibit Divergent Protection from Antimicrobial Host Peptides and Complement

Bacteria that colonize eukaryotic surfaces interact with numerous antimicrobial host-produced molecules, including host defense peptides, complement, and antibodies. Bacteria have evolved numerous strategies to both detect and resist these molecules, and in the Enterobacterales order of bacteria these include alterations of the cell surface lipopolysaccharide structure and/or charge and the production of proteases that can degrade these antimicrobial molecules. Here, we show that omptin family proteases from Escherichia coli and Citrobacter rodentium are regulated by the PhoPQ system. Omptin protease activity is induced by growth in low Mg²⁺, and deletion of PhoP dramatically reduces omptin protease activity, transcriptional regulation, and protein levels. We identify conserved PhoP-binding sites in the promoters of the E. coli omptin genes ompT, ompP, and arlC as well as in croP of Citrobacter rodentium and show that mutation of the putative PhoP-binding site in the ompT promoter abrogates PhoP-dependent expression. Finally, we show that although regulation by PhoPQ is conserved, each of the omptin proteins has differential activity toward host defense peptides, complement components, and resistance to human serum, suggesting that each omptin confers unique survival advantages against specific host antimicrobial factors.

Synergy by Perturbing the Gram-Negative Outer Membrane: Opening the Door for Gram-Positive Specific Antibiotics

New approaches to target antibacterial agents toward Gram-negative bacteria are key, given the rise of antibiotic resistance. Since the discovery of polymyxin B nonapeptide as a potent Gram-negative outer membrane (OM)-permeabilizing synergist in the early 1980s, a vast amount of literature on such synergists has been published. This Review addresses a range of peptide-based and small organic compounds that disrupt the OM to elicit a synergistic effect with antibiotics that are otherwise inactive toward Gram-negative bacteria, with synergy defined as a fractional inhibitory concentration index (FICI) of <0.5. Another requirement for the inclusion of the synergists here covered is their potentiation of a specific set of clinically used antibiotics: erythromycin, rifampicin, novobiocin, or vancomycin. In addition, we have focused on those synergists with reported activity against Gram-negative members of the ESKAPE family of pathogens namely, Escherichia coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumoniae, and/or Acinetobacter baumannii. In cases where the FICI values were not directly reported in the primary literature but could be calculated from the published data, we have done so, allowing for more direct comparison of potency with other synergists. We also address the hemolytic activity of the various OM-disrupting synergists reported in the literature, an effect that is often downplayed but is of key importance in assessing the selectivity of such compounds for Gram-negative bacteria.

Roles of Antimicrobial Peptides in Gynecological Cancers

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are essential components of the mucosal barrier of the female reproductive tract (FRT) and are involved in many important physiological processes, including shaping the microbiota and maintaining normal reproduction and pregnancy. Gynecological cancers seriously threaten women's health and bring a heavy burden to society so that new strategies are needed to deal with these diseases. Recent studies have suggested that AMPs also have a complex yet intriguing relationship with gynecological cancers. The expression level of AMPs changes during tumor progression and they may act as promising biomarkers in cancer detection and prognosis prediction. Although AMPs have long been considered as host protective, they actually play a "double-edged sword" role in gynecological cancers, either tumorigenic or antitumor, depending on factors such as AMP and cancer types, as well as AMP concentrations. Moreover, AMPs are associated with chemoresistance and regulation of AMPs' expression may alter sensitivity of cancer cells to chemotherapy. However, more work is needed, especially on the identification of molecular mechanisms of AMPs in the FRT, as well as the clinical application of these AMPs in detection, diagnosis and treatment of gynecological malignancies.

Antimicrobial Activity of Cathelicidin-Derived Peptide from the Iberian Mole Talpa occidentalis

The immune systems of all vertebrates contain cathelicidins, a family of antimicrobial peptides. Cathelicidins are a type of innate immune effector that have a number of biological functions, including a well-known direct antibacterial action and immunomodulatory function. In search of new templates for antimicrobial peptide discovery, we have identified and characterized the cathelicidin of the small mammal Talpa occidentalis. We describe the heterogeneity of cathelicidin in the order Eulipotyphla in relation to the Iberian mole and predict its antibacterial activity using bioinformatics tools. In an effort to correlate these findings, we derived the putative active peptide and performed in vitro hemolysis and antimicrobial activity assays, confirming that Iberian mole cathelicidins are antimicrobial. Our results showed that the Iberian mole putative peptide, named To-KL37 (KLFGKVGNLLQKGWQKIKNIGRRIKDFFRNIRPMQEA) has antibacterial and antifungal activity. Understanding the antimicrobial defense of insectivores may help scientists prevent the spread of pathogens to humans. We hope that this study can also provide new, effective antibacterial peptides for future drug development.

Immunomodulatory and Allergenic Properties of Antimicrobial Peptides

With the growing problem of the emergence of antibiotic-resistant bacteria, the search for alternative ways to combat bacterial infections is extremely urgent. While analyzing the effect of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) on immunocompetent cells, their effect on all parts of the immune system, and on humoral and cellular immunity, is revealed. AMPs have direct effects on neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells, T-lymphocytes, and mast cells, participating in innate immunity. They act on B-lymphocytes indirectly, enhancing the induction of antigen-specific immunity, which ultimately leads to the activation of adaptive immunity. The adjuvant activity of AMPs in relation to bacterial and viral antigens was the reason for their inclusion in vaccines and made it possible to formulate the concept of a “defensin vaccine” as an innovative basis for constructing vaccines. The immunomodulatory function of AMPs involves their influence on cells in the nearest microenvironment, recruitment and activation of other cells, supporting the response to pathogenic microorganisms and completing the inflammatory process, thus exhibiting a systemic effect. For the successful use of AMPs in medical practice, it is necessary to study their immunomodulatory activity in detail, taking into account their pleiotropy. The degree of maturity of the immune system and microenvironment can contribute to the prevention of complications and increase the effectiveness of therapy, since AMPs can suppress inflammation in some circumstances, but aggravate the response and damage of organism in others. It should also be taken into account that the real functions of one or another AMP depend on the types of total regulatory effects on the target cell, and not only on properties of an individual peptide. A wide spectrum of biological activity, including direct effects on pathogens, inactivation of bacterial toxins and influence on immunocompetent cells, has attracted the attention of researchers, however, the cytostatic activity of AMPs against normal cells, as well as their allergenic properties and low stability to host proteases, are serious limitations for the medical use of AMPs. In this connection, the tasks of searching for compounds that selectively affect the target and development of an appropriate method of application become critically important. The scope of this review is to summarize the current concepts and newest advances in research of the immunomodulatory activity of natural and synthetic AMPs, and to examine the prospects and limitations of their medical use.

Indolicidin revisited: biological activity, potential applications and perspectives of an antimicrobial peptide not yet fully explored

The emergence of multidrug-resistant bacteria, viruses and tumors is a serious threat to public health. Among natural peptides, indolicidin, a 13-residue peptide belonging to the cathelicidin family, deserves special attention. Indolicidin has a broad spectrum of biological activity and is active against a wide range of targets, such as bacteria (Gram+  and Gram-), fungi and viruses. Here, we review the most important features of the biological activity, potential applications and perspectives of indolicidin and its analogs. Although not yet approved for commercialization, this peptide has great potential to be applied in different areas, including the medical, biomedical, food industry and other unexplored areas. To achieve this goal, a multidisciplinary team of researchers must work together to fine tune peptides that overall lead to novel analogs and formulations to combat existing and possibly future diseases.

Antitumorigenic effect of insect-derived peptide poecilocorisin-1 in human skin cancer cells through regulation of Sp1 transcription factor

Malignant melanoma is highly resistant to conventional treatments and is one of the most aggressive types of skin cancers. Conventional cancer treatments are limited due to drug resistance, tumor selectivity, and solubility. Therefore, new treatments with fewer side effects and excellent effects should be developed. In previous studies, we have analyzed antimicrobial peptides (AMPs), which showed antibacterial and anti-inflammatory effects in insects, and some AMPs also exhibited anticancer efficacy. Anticancer peptides (ACPs) are known to have fewer side effects and high anticancer efficacy. In this study, the insect-derived peptide poecilocorisin-1 (PCC-1) did not induce toxicity in the human epithelial cell line HaCaT, but its potential as an anticancer agent was confirmed through specific effects of antiproliferation, apoptosis, and cell cycle arrest in two melanoma cell lines, SK-MEL-28 and G361. Additionally, we discovered a novel anticancer mechanism of insect-derived peptides in melanoma through the regulation of transcription factor Sp1 protein, which is overexpressed in cancer, apoptosis, and cell cycle-related proteins. Taken together, this study aims to clarify the anticancer efficacy and safety of insect-derived peptides and to present their potential as future therapeutic agents.

Antibacterial Potential of a Novel Peptide from the Consensus Sequence of Dermaseptin Related Peptides Secreted by Agalychnis annae

BACKGROUND

The consistently increasing reports of bacterial resistance and the reemergence of bacterial epidemics have inspired the health and scientific community to discover new molecules with antibacterial potential continuously. Frog-skin secretions constitute bioactive compounds essential for finding new biopharmaceuticals. The exact antibacterial characterization of dermaseptin related peptides derived from Agalychnis annae, is limited. The resemblance in their conserved and functionally linked genomes indicates an unprecedented opportunity to obtain novel bioactive compounds.

OBJECTIVE

In this study, we derived a novel peptide sequence and determined its antibacterial potentials.

METHODS

Consensus sequence strategy was used to design the novel and active antibacterial peptide named 'AGAAN' from skin secretions of Agalychnis annae. The in-vitro activities of the novel peptide against some bacterial strains were investigated. Time kill studies, DNA retardation, cytotoxicity, betagalactosidase, and molecular computational studies were conducted.

RESULTS

AGAAN inhibited P. aeruginosa, E. faecalis, and S. typhimurium at 20 μM concentration. E. coli and S. aureus were inhibited at 25 μM, and lastly, B. subtilis at 50 μM. Kinetics of inactivation against exponential and stationary growing bacteria was found to be rapid within 1-5 hours of peptide exposure, depending on time and concentration. The peptide displayed weak hemolytic activity between 0.01%-7.31% at the antibacterial concentrations. AGAAN efficiently induced bacterial membrane damage with subsequent cell lysis. The peptide's DNA binding shows that it also targets intracellular DNA by retarding its movement. Our in-silico molecular docking analysis displayed a strong affinity to the bacterial cytoplasmic membrane.

CONCLUSION

AGAAN exhibits potential antibacterial properties that could be used to combat bacterial resistance.

Resistin, a Novel Host Defense Peptide of Innate Immunity

Resistin, a cysteine-rich protein, expressed in adipocytes, was initially proposed as a link between obesity and diabetes in mice. In humans, resistin is considered to be a pro-inflammatory molecule expressed in immune cells, which plays a regulatory role in many chronic inflammatory diseases, metabolic diseases, infectious diseases, and cancers. However, increasing evidence shows that resistin functions as a host defense peptide of innate immunity, in terms of its wide-spectrum anti-microbial activity, modulation of immunity, and limitation of microbial product-induced inflammation. To date, the understanding of resistin participating in host defense mechanism is still limited. The review aims to summarize current knowledge about the biological properties, functions, and related mechanisms of resistin in host defense, which provides new insights into the pleiotropic biological function of resistin and yields promising strategies for developing new antimicrobial therapeutic agents.

The Multifaceted Mas-Related G Protein-Coupled Receptor Member X2 in Allergic Diseases and Beyond

Recent research on mast cell biology has turned its focus on MRGPRX2, a new member of the Mas-related G protein-coupled subfamily of receptors (Mrgprs), originally described in nociceptive neurons of the dorsal root ganglia. MRGPRX2, a member of this group, is present not only in neurons but also in mast cells (MCs), specifically, and potentially in other cells of the immune system, such as basophils and eosinophils. As emerging new functions for this receptor are studied, a variety of both natural and pharmacologic ligands are being uncovered, linked to the ability to induce receptor-mediated MC activation and degranulation. The diversity of these ligands, characterized in their human, mice, or rat homologues, seems to match that of the receptor's interactions. Natural ligands include host defense peptides, basic molecules, and key neuropeptides such as substance P and vasointestinal peptide (known for their role in the transmission of pain and itch) as well as eosinophil granule-derived proteins. Exogenous ligands include MC secretagogues such as compound 48/80 and mastoparan, a component of bee wasp venom, and several peptidergic drugs, among which are members of the quinolone family, neuromuscular blocking agents, morphine, and vancomycin. These discoveries shed light on its capacity as a multifaceted participant in naturally occurring responses within immunity and neural stimulus perception, as in responses at the center of immune pathology. In host defense, the mice Mrgprb2 has been proven to aid mast cells in the detection of peptidic molecules from bacteria and in the release of peptides with antimicrobial activities and other immune mediators. There are several potential actions described for it in tissue homeostasis and repair. In the realm of pathologic response, there is evidence to suggest that this receptor is also involved in chronic inflammation. Furthermore, MRGPRX2 has been linked to the pathophysiology of non-IgE-mediated immediate hypersensitivity drug reactions. Different studies have shown its possible role in other allergic diseases as well, such as asthma, atopic dermatitis, contact dermatitis, and chronic spontaneous urticaria. In this review, we sought to cover its function in physiologic processes and responses, as well as in allergic and nonallergic immune disease.

The multifaceted roles of antimicrobial peptides in oral diseases

Antimicrobial peptides are naturally occurring protein molecules with antibacterial, antiviral and/or antifungal activity. Some antimicrobial peptides kill microorganisms through direct binding with negatively charged microbial surfaces. This action disrupts the cytoplasmic membrane and leads to the leakage of the cytoplasm. In addition, they are involved in the innate immune response. Antimicrobial peptides play an important role in oral health, as natural antimicrobial peptides are the first line of host defence in response to microbial infection. The level of natural antimicrobial peptides increases during severe disease conditions and play a role in promoting the healing of oral tissues. However, they are insufficient for eliminating pathogenic micro-organisms. The variability of the oral environment can markedly reduce the effect of natural antimicrobial peptides. Thus, researchers are developing synthetic antimicrobial peptides with promising stability and biocompatibility. Synthetic antimicrobial peptides are a potential alternative to traditional antimicrobial therapy. Pertinent to oral diseases, the deregulation of antimicrobial peptides is involved in the pathogenesis of dental caries, periodontal disease, mucosal disease and oral cancer, where they can kill pathogenic microorganisms, promote tissue healing, serve as biomarkers and inhibit tumor cells. This narrative review provides an overview of the multifaceted roles of antimicrobial peptides in oral diseases.

Potential Suppressive Effect of Nicotine on the Inflammatory Response in Oral Epithelial Cells: An In Vitro Study

Smoking is a well-recognized risk factor for oral mucosal and periodontal diseases. Nicotine is an important component of cigarette smoke. This study aims to investigate the impact of nicotine on the viability and inflammatory mediator production of an oral epithelial cell line in the presence of various inflammatory stimuli. Oral epithelial HSC-2 cells were challenged with nicotine (10⁻⁸–10⁻² M) for 24 h in the presence or absence of Porphyromonas gingivalis lipopolysaccharide (LPS, 1 µg/mL) or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α (10⁻⁷ M) for 24 h. The cell proliferation/viability was determined by MTT assay. Gene expression of interleukin (IL)-8, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, and β-defensin was assayed by qPCR. The production of IL-8 protein and cell surface expression of ICAM-1 was assessed by ELISA and flow cytometry, respectively. Proliferation/viability of HSC-2 cells was unaffected by nicotine at concentrations up to 10⁻³ M and inhibited at 10⁻² M. Nicotine had no significant effect on the basal expression of IL-8, ICAM-1, and β-defensin. At the same time, it significantly diminished P. gingivalis LPS or the TNF-α-induced expression levels of these factors. Within the limitations of this study, the first evidence was provided in vitro that nicotine probably exerts a suppressive effect on the production of inflammatory mediators and antimicrobial peptides in human oral epithelial cells.

Cryptosporidium parvum Subverts Antimicrobial Activity of CRAMP by Reducing Its Expression in Neonatal Mice

Cryptosporidium parvum causes diarrhea in infants under 5 years, in immunosuppressed individuals or in young ruminants. This parasite infects the apical side of ileal epithelial cells where it develops itself and induces inflammation. Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are part of the innate immune response, playing a major role in the control of the acute phase of C. parvum infection in neonates. Intestinal AMP production in neonates is characterized by high expressions of Cathelicidin Related Antimicrobial Peptide (CRAMP), the unique cathelicidin in mice known to fight bacterial infections. In this study, we investigated the role of CRAMP during cryptosporidiosis in neonates. We demonstrated that sporozoites are sensitive to CRAMP antimicrobial activity. However, during C. parvum infection the intestinal expression of CRAMP was significantly and selectively reduced, while other AMPs were upregulated. Moreover, despite high CRAMP expression in the intestine of neonates at homeostasis, the depletion of CRAMP did not worsen C. parvum infection. This result might be explained by the rapid downregulation of CRAMP induced by infection. However, the exogenous administration of CRAMP dampened the parasite burden in neonates. Taken together these results suggest that C. parvum impairs the production of CRAMP to subvert the host response, and highlight exogenous cathelicidin supplements as a potential treatment strategy.

Immunomodulatory Role of the Antimicrobial LL-37 Peptide in Autoimmune Diseases and Viral Infections

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are produced by neutrophils, monocytes, and macrophages, as well as epithelial cells, and are an essential component of innate immunity system against infection, including several viral infections. AMPs, in particular the cathelicidin LL-37, also exert numerous immunomodulatory activities by inducing cytokine production and attracting and regulating the activity of immune cells. AMPs are scarcely expressed in normal skin, but their expression increases when skin is injured by external factors, such as trauma, inflammation, or infection. LL-37 complexed to self-DNA acts as autoantigen in psoriasis and lupus erythematosus (LE), where it also induces production of interferon by plasmocytoid dendritic cells and thus initiates a cascade of autocrine and paracrine processes, leading to a disease state. In these disorders, epidermal keratinocytes express high amounts of AMPs, which can lead to uncontrolled inflammation. Similarly, LL-37 had several favorable and unfavorable roles in virus replication and disease pathogenesis. Targeting the antiviral and immunomodulatory functions of LL-37 opens a new approach to limit virus dissemination and the progression of disease.

Acute pseudogout presenting as an exception to Musculoskeletal Infection Society criteria in total knee arthroplasty: a case report

In this case, a 78-year-old female with no previous medical history of crystalline arthropathy presented with pain, effusion, and erythema about a total knee arthroplasty (TKA) performed 13 years prior. Implementation of a novel synovial fluid alpha-defensin assay ruled out periprosthetic joint infection (PJI) despite a positive 2018 Musculoskeletal Infection Society (MSIS) minor criteria score of 8 points, a significant diagnostic differentiation which prevented secondary invasive debridement or joint irrigation intervention. Confirmatory histologic study was positive for calcium pyrophosphate crystals, indicative of acute pseudogout inflammation rather than PJI or septic arthritis manifestation. The patient was then conservatively managed medically for a pseudogout flare and had no evidence of infection with normal physical exam and laboratory study at one- and two-years post treatment, respectively. Given the predominantly clinical nature of current PJI assessment in-clinic coupled with notable risks associated with aggressive re-intervention in the setting of suspected infection, critical need exists for the maturation of sensitive, reliable empiric measures which may assist in guiding orthopaedic surgeon evaluation of patients presenting with inflammatory symptomology around a previous surgical site. In this case, we conclude that patients with a negative alpha-defensin assay alongside crystalline arthropathy on histology may be cautiously yet successfully treated non-operatively despite clinical MSIS criteria concerning for PJI.

Cathelicidin-DM is an Antimicrobial Peptide from Duttaphrynus melanostictus and Has Wound-Healing Therapeutic Potential

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are a class of templates with application potential for drug development. Amphibians are important sources of AMPs. Duttaphrynus melanostictus is the main source of traditional Chinese medicine "Chansu", which has anti-infection effect while without a clear mechanism. This study aimed to find the cathelicidin peptide in D. melanostictus and then investigate the activity in vivo and in vitro, and an AMP-encoding gene (cathelicidin-DM, GenBank: KJ820824.1) was obtained from the constructed cDNA library of D. melanostictus. The MIC test and SYTOX Green uptake were used for the evaluation of the bactericidal capacity and mechanisms. The serum stability tests were used for the evaluation of the application potential. The skin wound infection model and in vivo imaging were used for in vitro application of possibility evaluation. The results showed that cathelicidin-DM was a 37 amino acid AMP with good bactericidal ability, which was similar to melittin: both can kill bacteria within 15 min. Moreover, cathelicidin-DM exhibits good therapeutic potential in the mouse wound infection model, and it can be enriched to the site of infection for treatment. Thus, cathelicidin-DM could be a new template for antimicrobial drug development given its good antibacterial activity in vivo and in vitro.

Escherichia coli Lipopolysaccharide Modulates Biological Activities of Human-β-Defensin Analogues but Not Non-Ribosomally Synthesized Peptides

Human-β-defensins (HBD1-3) are antibacterial peptides containing three disulphide bonds. In the present study, the effect of Escherichia coli lipopolysaccharide (LPS) on the antibacterial activities of HBD2-3, C-terminal analogues having a single disulphide bond, Phd1-3, and their corresponding myristoylated analogues MPhd1-3 were investigated. The effect of LPS on the activities of linear amphipathic peptides melittin, LL37 and non-ribosomally synthesized peptides, polymyxin B, alamethicin, gramicidin A, and gramicidin S was also examined. The antibacterial activity of HBD 2-3, Phd1-3, and MPhd1-3 in the presence of LPS against E. coli and Staphylococcus aureus was inhibited. While LPS inhibited the antibacterial activity of LL37, the inhibition of melittin activity was partial. The hemolytic activity exhibited by MPhd1, MPhd3, melittin, and LL37 was inhibited in the presence of LPS. HBD2-3, Phd1-3, and MPhd1-3 also showed endotoxin neutralizing activity. The antibacterial and hemolytic activities of polymyxin B, alamethicin, gramicidin A, and gramicidin S were not inhibited in the presence of LPS. Fluorescence assays employing dansyl cadaverine showed that HBD2-3 and defensin analogues bind to LPS more strongly as compared to alamethicin, gramicidin A, and gramicidin S. Electron microscopy images indicated that peptides disintegrate the structure of LPS. The inhibition of the antibacterial activity of native defensins and analogues in the presence of LPS indicates that the initial interaction with the bacterial surface is similar. The native defensin sequence or structure is also not essential, although cationic charges are necessary for binding to LPS. Hydrophobic interaction is the main driving force for association of non-ribosomally synthesized polymyxin B, alamethicin, gramicidin A, and gramicidin S with LPS. It is likely that these peptides rapidly insert into membranes and do not interact with the bacterial cell surface, whereas cationic peptides such as β-defensin and their analogues, melittin and LL37, first interact with the bacterial cell surface and then the membrane. Our results suggest that evaluating interaction of antibacterial and hemolytic peptides with LPS is a compelling way of elucidating the mechanism of bacterial killing or hemolysis.

Persistent Breeding-Induced Endometritis in Mares - a Multifaceted Challenge: From Clinical Aspects to Immunopathogenesis and Pathobiology

Post-breeding endometritis (i.e., inflammation/infection of the endometrium), is a physiological reaction taking place in the endometrium of mares within 48 hours post-breeding, aimed to clear seminal plasma, excess sperm, microorganisms, and debris from the uterine lumen in preparation for the arrival of an embryo. Mares are classified as susceptible or resistant to persistent breeding-induced endometritis (PBIE) based on their ability to clear this inflammation/infection by 48 hours post-breeding. Mares susceptible to PBIE, or those with difficulty clearing infection/inflammation, have a deficient immune response and compromised physical mechanisms of defense against infection. Molecular pathways of the innate immune response known to be involved in PBIE are discussed herein. The role of the adaptive uterine immune response on PBIE remains to be elucidated in horses. Advances in the pathobiology of microbes involved in PBIE are also revised here. Traditional and non-traditional therapeutic modalities for endometritis are contrasted and described in the context of clinical and molecular aspects. In recent years, the lack of efficacy of traditional therapeutic modalities, alongside the ever-increasing incidence of antibiotic-resistant microorganisms, has enforced the development of non-traditional therapies. Novel biological products capable of modulating the endometrial inflammatory response are also discussed here as part of the non-traditional therapies for endometritis.

Antiviral Activities of Human Host Defense Peptides

Peptides with broad-spectrum antimicrobial activity are found widely expressed throughout nature. As they participate in a number of different aspects of innate immunity in mammals, they have been termed Host Defense Peptides (HDPs). Due to their common structural features, including an amphipathic structure and cationic charge, they have been widely shown to interact with and disrupt microbial membranes. Thus, it is not surprising that human HDPs have activity against enveloped viruses as well as bacteria and fungi. However, these peptides also exhibit activity against a wide range of non-enveloped viruses as well, acting at a number of different steps in viral infection. This review focuses on the activity of human host defense peptides, including alpha- and beta-defensins and the sole human cathelicidin, LL-37, against both enveloped and non-enveloped viruses. The broad spectrum of antiviral activity of these peptides, both in vitro and in vivo suggest that they play an important role in the innate antiviral defense against viral infections. Furthermore, the literature suggests that they may be developed into antiviral therapeutic agents.

Antimicrobial and Immune-Modulatory Effects of Vitamin D Provide Promising Antibiotics-Independent Approaches to Tackle Bacterial Infections - Lessons Learnt from a Literature Survey

Antimicrobial multidrug-resistance (MDR) constitutes an emerging threat to global health and makes the effective prevention and treatment of many, particularly severe infections challenging, if not impossible. Many antibiotic classes have lost antimicrobial efficacy against a plethora of infectious agents including bacterial species due to microbial acquisition of distinct resistance genes. Hence, the development of novel anti-infectious intervention strategies including antibiotic-independent approaches is urgently needed. Vitamins such as vitamin D and vitamin D derivates might be such promising molecular candidates to combat infections caused by bacteria including MDR strains. Using the Pubmed database, we therefore performed an in-depth literature survey, searching for publications on the antimicrobial effect of vitamin D directed against bacteria including MDR strains. In vitro and clinical studies between 2009 and 2019 revealed that vitamin D does, in fact, possess antimicrobial properties against both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacterial species, whereas conflicting results could be obtained from in vivo studies. Taken together, the potential anti-infectious effects for the antibiotic-independent application of vitamin D and/or an adjunct therapy in combination with antibiotic compounds directed against infectious diseases such as tuberculosis, H. pylori infections, or skin diseases, for instance, should be considered and further investigated in more detail.

Helical antimicrobial peptides assemble into protofibril scaffolds that present ordered dsDNA to TLR9

Amphiphilicity in ɑ-helical antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) is recognized as a signature of potential membrane activity. Some AMPs are also strongly immunomodulatory: LL37-DNA complexes potently amplify Toll-like receptor 9 (TLR9) activation in immune cells and exacerbate autoimmune diseases. The rules governing this proinflammatory activity of AMPs are unknown. Here we examine the supramolecular structures formed between DNA and three prototypical AMPs using small angle X-ray scattering and molecular modeling. We correlate these structures to their ability to activate TLR9 and show that a key criterion is the AMP's ability to assemble into superhelical protofibril scaffolds. These structures enforce spatially-periodic DNA organization in nanocrystalline immunocomplexes that trigger strong recognition by TLR9, which is conventionally known to bind single DNA ligands. We demonstrate that we can "knock in" this ability for TLR9 amplification in membrane-active AMP mutants, which suggests the existence of tradeoffs between membrane permeating activity and immunomodulatory activity in AMP sequences.

Klebsiella pneumoniae infection biology: living to counteract host defences

Klebsiella species cause a wide range of diseases including pneumonia, urinary tract infections (UTIs), bloodstream infections and sepsis. These infections are particularly a problem among neonates, elderly and immunocompromised individuals. Klebsiella is also responsible for a significant number of community-acquired infections. A defining feature of these infections is their morbidity and mortality, and the Klebsiella strains associated with them are considered hypervirulent. The increasing isolation of multidrug-resistant strains has significantly narrowed, or in some settings completely removed, the therapeutic options for the treatment of Klebsiella infections. Not surprisingly, this pathogen has then been singled out as an 'urgent threat to human health' by several organisations. This review summarises the tremendous progress that has been made to uncover the sophisticated immune evasion strategies of K. pneumoniae. The co-evolution of Klebsiella in response to the challenge of an activated immune has made Klebsiella a formidable pathogen exploiting stealth strategies and actively suppressing innate immune defences to overcome host responses to survive in the tissues. A better understanding of Klebsiella immune evasion strategies in the context of the host-pathogen interactions is pivotal to develop new therapeutics, which can be based on antagonising the anti-immune strategies of this pathogen.

Protective Effects of Protegrin in Dextran Sodium Sulfate-Induced Murine Colitis

Cathelicidins, a class of antimicrobial peptides, have been widely studied for their antimicrobial role in innate immune responses during infection and inflammation. At sub-antimicrobial concentrations, various cathelicidins from different species have been reported to exert chemotactic activity on neutrophils, monocytes, dendritic cells and T-cells, and also enhance angiogenesis and wound healing. To date, the role of the pig cathelicidin, protegrin-1 (PG-1), in immune modulation and tissue repair in the intestinal tract has not been investigated. The aim of the present study was to examine the potential protective effects of recombinant PG-1 in a mouse dextran sodium sulfate (DSS)-induced colitis inflammation model. This is the first report showing the protective effects of PG-1 in its various forms (pro-, cathelin-, and mature-forms) in attenuating significant body weight loss associated with DSS-induced colitis (p < 0.05). PG-1 treatment improved histological scores (P < 0.05) and influenced the gene expression of inflammatory mediators and tissue repair factors such as trefoil factor 3 (TFF3) and mucin (MUC-2). Protegrin treatment also altered the metabolite profile, returning the metabolite levels closer to untreated control levels. These findings lay the foundation for future oral application of recombinant PG-1 to potentially treat intestinal damage and inflammation.

Machine learning antimicrobial peptide sequences: Some surprising variations on the theme of amphiphilic assembly

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) collectively constitute a key component of the host innate immune system. They span a diverse space of sequences and can be α-helical, β-sheet, or unfolded in structure. Despite a wealth of knowledge about them from decades of experiments, it remains difficult to articulate general principles governing such peptides. How are they different from other molecules that are also cationic and amphiphilic? What other functions, in immunity and otherwise, are enabled by these simple sequences? In this short review, we present some recent work that engages these questions using methods not usually applied to AMP studies, such as machine learning. We find that not only do AMP-like sequences confer membrane remodeling activity to an unexpectedly broad range of protein classes, their cationic and amphiphilic signature also allows them to act as meta-antigens and self-assemble with immune ligands into nanocrystalline complexes for multivalent presentation to Toll-like receptors.

Antiviral therapeutic approaches for human rhinovirus infections

Human rhinoviruses are the primary etiological agent of the common cold. This infection can be mild and self-limiting in immunocompetent hosts, but can be associated with bronchiolitis in infants, pneumonia in the immunosuppressed and exacerbations of pre-existing pulmonary conditions such as asthma or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. Many of these conditions can place significant economic costs upon healthcare infrastructure. There is currently no licensed vaccine for rhinovirus, as the large variety of rhinovirus serotypes has posed significant challenges for research. In this review, we discuss current knowledge around antiviral drugs and small molecule inhibitors of rhinovirus infection, as well as antiviral host defense peptides as exciting prospects to approach the development of novel therapeutics which target human rhinovirus.

Relationship between human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) infection and chronic periodontitis

INTRODUCTION

Current studies show that, even in the era of antiretroviral therapies, HIV-1 infection is associated with more severe and frequent refractory chronic periodontitis. Areas covered: This review, based on a systematic analysis of the literature, intends to provide an update on factors that may be involved in the pathogenesis of periodontal disease in HIV-1-infected patients, including local immunosuppression, oral microbial factors, systemic inflammation, salivary markers, and the role of gingival tissue as a possible reservoir of HIV-1. Expert commentary: The therapeutic revolution of ART made HIV-1 infection a chronic controllable disease, reduced HIV-1 mortality rate, restored at least partially the immune response and dramatically increased life expectancy of HIV-1-infected patients. Despite all these positive aspects, chronic periodontitis assumes an important role in the HIV-1 infection status for activating systemic inflammation favoring viral replication and influencing HIV-1 status, and also acting as a possible reservoir of HIV-1. All these issues still need to be clarified and validated, but have important clinical implications that certainly will benefit the diagnosis and management of chronic periodontitis in HIV-1-infected patients, and also contributes to HIV-1 eradication.

Conceptual Perspectives: Bacterial Antimicrobial Peptide Induction as a Novel Strategy for Symbiosis with the Human Host

Human beta defensins (hBDs) are small cationic peptides, expressed in mucosal epithelia and important agents of innate immunity, act as antimicrobial and chemotactic agents at mucosal barriers. In this perspective, we present evidence supporting a novel strategy by which the oral bacterium Fusobacterium nucleatum induces hBDs and other antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) in normal human oral epithelial cells (HOECs) and thereby protects them from other microbial pathogens. The findings stress (1) the physiological importance of hBDs, (2) that this strategy may be a mechanism that contributes to homeostasis and health in body sites constantly challenged with bacteria and (3) that novel properties identified in commensal bacteria could, one day, be harnessed as new probiotic strategies to combat colonization of opportunistic pathogens. With that in mind, we highlight and review the discovery and characterization of a novel lipo-protein, FAD-I (FusobacteriumAssociated Defensin Inducer) associated with the outer membrane of F. nucleatum that may act as a homeostatic agent by activating endogenous AMPs to re-equilibrate a dysregulated microenvironment. FAD-I has the potential to reduce dysbiosis-driven diseases at a time when resistance to antibiotics is increasing. We therefore postulate that FAD-I may offer a new paradigm in immunoregulatory therapeutics to bolster host innate defense of vulnerable mucosae, while maintaining physiologically responsive states of inflammation.

Modulation of toll-like receptor signaling by antimicrobial peptides

Antimicrobial peptides (AMPs) are typically thought of as molecular hole punchers that directly kill pathogens by membrane permeation. However, recent work has shown that AMPs are pleiotropic, multifunctional molecules that can strongly modulate immune responses. In this review, we provide a historical overview of the immunomodulatory properties of natural and synthetic antimicrobial peptides, with a special focus on human cathelicidin and defensins. We also summarize the various mechanisms of AMP immune modulation and outline key structural rules underlying the recently-discovered phenomenon of AMP-mediated Toll-like receptor (TLR) signaling. In particular, we describe several complementary studies demonstrating how AMPs self-assemble with nucleic acids to form nanocrystalline complexes that amplify TLR-mediated inflammation. In a broader scope, we discuss how this new conceptual framework allows for the prediction of immunomodulatory behavior in AMPs, how the discovery of hidden antimicrobial activity in known immune signaling proteins can inform these predictions, and how these findings reshape our understanding of AMPs in normal host defense and autoimmune disease.

Innate Immunity to Mucosal Candida Infections

Mucosal epithelial tissues are exposed to high numbers of microbes, including commensal fungi, and are able to distinguish between those that are avirulent and those that cause disease. Epithelial cells have evolved multiple mechanisms to defend against colonization and invasion by Candida species. The interplay between mucosal epithelial tissues and immune cells is key for control and clearance of fungal infections. Our understanding of the mucosal innate host defense system has expanded recently with new studies bringing to light the importance of epithelial cell responses, innate T cells, neutrophils, and other phagocytes during Candida infections. Epithelial tissues release cytokines, host defense peptides, and alarmins during Candida invasion that act in concert to limit fungal proliferation and recruit immune effector cells. The innate T cell/IL-17 axis and recruitment of neutrophils are of central importance in controlling mucosal fungal infections. Here, we review current knowledge of the innate immunity at sites of mucosal Candida infection, with a focus on infections caused by C. albicans.

Cyclic Peptides as Novel Therapeutic Microbicides: Engineering of Human Defensin Mimetics

Cyclic peptides are receiving significant attention thanks to their antimicrobial activity and high serum stability, which is useful to develop and design novel antimicrobial agents. Antimicrobial peptides appear to be key components of innate defences against bacteria, viruses, and fungi. Among the others, defensins possess a strong microbicidial activity. Defensins are cationic and amphipathic peptides with six cysteine residues connected by three disulfide bonds found in plants, insects, and mammals; they are divided in three families: α-, β-, and θ-defensins. α-Defensins are contained in the primary granules of human neutrophils; β-defensins are expressed in human epithelia; and θ-defensins are pseudo-cyclic defensins not found in humans, but in rhesus macaques. The structural diversities among the three families are reflected in a different antimicrobial action as well as in serum stability. The engineering of these peptides is an exciting opportunity to obtain more functional antimicrobial molecules highlighting their potential as therapeutic agents. The present review reports the most recent advances in the field of cyclic peptides with a specific regard to defensin analogs.

Evaluation of the use of therapeutic peptides for cancer treatment

Cancer along with cardiovascular disease are the main causes of death in the industrialised countries around the World. Conventional cancer treatments are losing their therapeutic uses due to drug resistance, lack of tumour selectivity and solubility and as such there is a need to develop new therapeutic agents. Therapeutic peptides are a promising and a novel approach to treat many diseases including cancer. They have several advantages over proteins or antibodies: as they are (a) easy to synthesise, (b) have a high target specificity and selectivity and (c) have low toxicity. Therapeutic peptides do have some significant drawbacks related to their stability and short half-life. In this review, strategies used to overcome peptide limitations and to enhance their therapeutic effect will be compared. The use of short cell permeable peptides that interfere and inhibit protein-protein interactions will also be evaluated.

Characterization of the antimicrobial peptide family defensins in the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), and tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii)

Defensins comprise a family of cysteine-rich antimicrobial peptides with important roles in innate and adaptive immune defense in vertebrates. We characterized alpha and beta defensin genes in three Australian marsupials: the Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii), koala (Phascolarctos cinereus), and tammar wallaby (Macropus eugenii) and identified 48, 34, and 39 defensins, respectively. One hundred and twelve have the classical antimicrobial peptides characteristics required for pathogen membrane targeting, including cationic charge (between 1+ and 15+) and a high proportion of hydrophobic residues (>30%). Phylogenetic analysis shows that gene duplication has driven unique and species-specific expansions of devil, koala, and tammar wallaby beta defensins and devil alpha defensins. Defensin genes are arranged in three genomic clusters in marsupials, whereas further duplications and translocations have occurred in eutherians resulting in four and five gene clusters in mice and humans, respectively. Marsupial defensins are generally under purifying selection, particularly residues essential for defensin structural stability. Certain hydrophobic or positively charged sites, predominantly found in the defensin loop, are positively selected, which may have functional significance in defensin-target interaction and membrane insertion.

Thermodynamic instability of viral proteins is a pathogen-associated molecular pattern targeted by human defensins

Human defensins are innate immune defense peptides with a remarkably broad repertoire of anti-pathogen activities. In addition to modulating immune response, inflammation, and angiogenesis, disintegrating bacterial membranes, and inactivating bacterial toxins, defensins are known to intercept various viruses at different stages of their life cycles, while remaining relatively benign towards human cells and proteins. Recently we have found that human defensins inactivate proteinaceous bacterial toxins by taking advantage of their low thermodynamic stability and acting as natural “anti-chaperones”, i.e. destabilizing the native conformation of the toxins. In the present study we tested various proteins produced by several viruses (HIV-1, PFV, and TEV) and found them to be susceptible to destabilizing effects of human α-defensins HNP-1 and HD-5 and the synthetic θ-defensin RC-101, but not β-defensins hBD-1 and hBD-2 or structurally related plant-derived peptides. Defensin-induced unfolding promoted exposure of hydrophobic groups otherwise confined to the core of the viral proteins. This resulted in precipitation, an enhanced susceptibility to proteolytic cleavage, and a loss of viral protein activities. We propose, that defensins recognize and target a common and essential physico-chemical property shared by many bacterial toxins and viral proteins – the intrinsically low thermodynamic protein stability.

Functions of Cationic Host Defense Peptides in Immunity

Cationic host defense peptides are a widely distributed family of immunomodulatory molecules with antimicrobial properties. The biological functions of these peptides include the ability to influence innate and adaptive immunity for efficient resolution of infections and simultaneous modulation of inflammatory responses. This unique dual bioactivity of controlling infections and inflammation has gained substantial attention in the last three decades and consequent interest in the development of these peptide mimics as immunomodulatory therapeutic candidates. In this review, we summarize the current literature on the wide range of functions of cationic host defense peptides in the context of the mammalian immune system.

Cationic host defense peptides; novel antimicrobial therapeutics against Category A pathogens and emerging infections

Cationic Host Defense Peptides (HDP, also known as antimicrobial peptides) are crucial components of the innate immune system and possess broad-spectrum antibacterial, antiviral, and immunomodulatory activities. They can contribute to the rapid clearance of biological agents through direct killing of the organisms, inhibition of pro-inflammatory mediators such as lipopolysaccharide, and by modulating the inflammatory response to infection. Category A biological agents and materials, as classified by the United States National Institutes for Health, the US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, and the US Department of Homeland Security, carry the most severe threat in terms of human health, transmissibility, and preparedness. As such, there is a pressing need for novel frontline approaches for prevention and treatment of diseases caused by these organisms, and exploiting the broad antimicrobial activity exhibited by cationic host defense peptides represents an exciting priority area for clinical research. This review will summarize what is known about the antimicrobial and antiviral effects of the two main families of cationic host defense peptides, cathelicidins, and defensins in the context of Category A biological agents which include, but are not limited to; anthrax (Bacillus anthracis), plague (Yersinia pestis), smallpox (Variola major), tularemia (Francisella tularensis). In addition, we highlight priority areas, particularly emerging viral infections, where more extensive research is urgently required.

Non-coding Double-stranded RNA and Antimicrobial Peptide LL-37 Induce Growth Factor Expression from Keratinocytes and Endothelial Cells

A critical function for skin is that when damaged it must simultaneously identify the nature of the injury, repair barrier function, and limit the intrusion of pathogenic organisms. These needs are carried out through the detection of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) and a response that includes secretion of cytokines, chemokines, growth factors, and antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). In this study, we analyzed how non-coding double-stranded RNA (dsRNAs) act as a DAMP in the skin and how the human cathelicidin AMP LL-37 might influence growth factor production in response to this DAMP. dsRNA alone significantly increased the expression of multiple growth factors in keratinocytes, endothelial cells, and fibroblasts. Furthermore, RNA sequencing transcriptome analysis found that multiple growth factors increase when cells are exposed to both LL-37 and dsRNA, a condition that mimics normal wounding. Quantitative PCR and/or ELISA validated that growth factors expressed by keratinocytes in these conditions included, but were not limited to, basic fibroblast growth factor (FGF2), heparin-binding EGF-like growth factor (HBEGF), vascular endothelial growth factor C (VEGFC), betacellulin (BTC), EGF, epiregulin (EREG), and other members of the transforming growth factor β superfamily. These results identify a novel role for DAMPs and AMPs in the stimulation of repair and highlight the complex interactions involved in the wound environment.

Cathelicidins Have Direct Antiviral Activity against Respiratory Syncytial Virus In Vitro and Protective Function In Vivo in Mice and Humans

Respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) is a leading cause of respiratory tract infection in infants, causing significant morbidity and mortality. No vaccine or specific, effective treatment is currently available. A more complete understanding of the key components of effective host response to RSV and novel preventative and therapeutic interventions are urgently required. Cathelicidins are host defense peptides, expressed in the inflamed lung, with key microbicidal and modulatory roles in innate host defense against infection. In this article, we demonstrate that the human cathelicidin LL-37 mediates an antiviral effect on RSV by inducing direct damage to the viral envelope, disrupting viral particles and decreasing virus binding to, and infection of, human epithelial cells in vitro. In addition, exogenously applied LL-37 is protective against RSV-mediated disease in vivo, in a murine model of pulmonary RSV infection, demonstrating maximal efficacy when applied concomitantly with virus. Furthermore, endogenous murine cathelicidin, induced by infection, has a fundamental role in protection against disease in vivo postinfection with RSV. Finally, higher nasal levels of LL-37 are associated with protection in a healthy human adult RSV infection model. These data lead us to propose that cathelicidins are a key, nonredundant component of host defense against pulmonary infection with RSV, functioning as a first point of contact antiviral shield and having additional later-phase roles in minimizing the severity of disease outcome. Consequently, cathelicidins represent an inducible target for preventative strategies against RSV infection and may inform the design of novel therapeutic analogs for use in established infection.

Salivary Antimicrobial Peptides in Early Detection of Periodontitis

In the pathogenesis of periodontitis, an infection-induced inflammatory disease of the tooth-supporting tissues, there is a complex interaction between the subgingival microbiota and host tissues. A periodontal diagnostic tool for detecting the initiation and progression of the disease, monitoring the response to therapy, or measuring the degree of susceptibility to future disease progression has been of interest for a long time. The value of various enzymes, proteins, and immunoglobulins, which are abundant constituents of saliva, as potential biomarkers has been recognized and extensively investigated for periodontal diseases. Gingival defensins and cathelicidins are small cationic antimicrobial peptides that play an important role in innate immune response. However, their applicability as salivary biomarkers is still under debate. The present review focuses on proteomic biomarkers and antimicrobial peptides, in particular, to be used at early phases of periodontitis.

Modulation of host defense peptide-mediated human mast cell activation by LPS

Human β-defensin3 (hBD3) and the cathelicidin LL-37 are host defense peptides (HDPs) that directly kill microbes and display immunomodulatory/wound-healing properties via the activation of chemokine, formylpeptide and epidermal growth factor receptors on leukocytes and epithelial cells. A C-terminal 14 amino acid hBD3 peptide with all Cys residues replaced with Ser (CHRG01) and an LL-37 peptide consisting of residues 17-29 (FK-13) display antimicrobial activity but lack immunomodulatory property. Surprisingly, we found that CHRG01 and FK-13 caused Ca(2+) mobilization and degranulation in human mast cells via a novel G protein-coupled receptor known as Mas-related gene-X2 (MrgX2). At local sites of bacterial infection, the negatively charged LPS likely interacts with cationic HDPs to inhibit their activity and thus providing a mechanism for pathogens to escape host defense mechanisms. We found that LPS caused almost complete inhibition of hBD3 and LL-37-induced Ca(2+) mobilization and mast cell degranulation. In contrast, it had no effect on CHRG01 and FK-13-induced mast cell responses. These findings suggest that HDP derivatives that kill microbes, harness mast cell's host defense and wound-healing properties via the activation of MrgX2 but are resistant to inhibition by LPS could be utilized for the treatment of antibiotic-resistant microbial infections.

Peptides and Peptidomimetics for Antimicrobial Drug Design

The purpose of this paper is to introduce and highlight a few classes of traditional antimicrobial peptides with a focus on structure-activity relationship studies. After first dissecting the important physiochemical properties that influence the antimicrobial and toxic properties of antimicrobial peptides, the contributions of individual amino acids with respect to the peptides antibacterial properties are presented. A brief discussion of the mechanisms of action of different antimicrobials as well as the development of bacterial resistance towards antimicrobial peptides follows. Finally, current efforts on novel design strategies and peptidomimetics are introduced to illustrate the importance of antimicrobial peptide research in the development of future antibiotics.

Expression of TIM-3, Human β-defensin-2, and FOXP3 and Correlation with Disease Activity in Pediatric Crohn's Disease with Infliximab Therapy

BACKGROUND/AIMS

This study investigated the expression of T cell immunoglobulin- and mucin-domain-containing molecule 3 (TIM-3), human β-defensin (HBD)-2, forkhead box protein 3 (FOXP3), and the frequency of CD4(+) CD25(+) FOXP3(+) regulatory T cells (Tregs) in children with Crohn's disease (CD) during infliximab therapy.

METHODS

We enrolled 20 CD patients who received infliximab treatment for 1 year. Peripheral blood and colonic mucosal specimens were collected from all CD patients and from healthy control individuals.

RESULTS

A significant difference in TIM-3 mRNA expression was evident in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and colonic mucosa between CD patients before infliximab therapy and the healthy controls (p<0.001 and p=0.005, respectively). A significant difference in HBD-2 mRNA expression was found in colonic mucosa between CD patients before infliximab therapy and the healthy controls (p=0.013). In the active phase of CD, at baseline, the median percentage of T cells that were CD25(+) FOXP3(+) was 1.5% (range, 0.32% to 3.49%), which increased after inflixmab treatment for 1 year to 2.2% (range, 0.54% to 5.02%) (p=0.008).

CONCLUSIONS

Our study suggests that both the adaptive and innate immune systems are closely linked to each other in CD pathogenesis. And the results of our study indicate that it could be a useful therapeutic tool, where restoration of TIM-3, HBD-2 and the function of Tregs may repair the dysfunctional immunoregulation in CD.

Tonsillectomy and the risk for deep neck infection-a nationwide cohort study

BACKGROUND

Although the tonsils contribute to first line immunity against foreign pathogens in the upper aero-digestive tract, the association of tonsillectomy with the risk of deep neck infection remains unclear. The aim of this study was to assess the incidence rate and risk of deep neck infection among patients who had undergone a tonsillectomy.

METHODS

This retrospective cohort study evaluated all patients who had undergone tonsillectomy between 2001 and 2009 as identified from the Taiwan National Health Insurance Research Database. For each post-tonsillectomy patient, 10 age-, sex-, and index date-matched controls without a history of tonsillectomy were randomly selected. Cox Proportional hazard model and propensity score model were performed to evaluate the association between tonsillectomy and deep neck infection after adjusting for demographic and clinical data.

RESULTS

There were 34 (71.6 cases per 100,000 person-years) and 174 (36.6 cases per 100,000 person-years) patients that developed deep neck infection in the tonsillectomized and comparison cohorts, respectively. After adjusting for covariates, patients who had undergone a tonsillectomy had a 1.71-fold greater risk of deep neck infection by both Cox proportional hazard model (95% confidence interval, 1.13-2.59) and propensity score model (95% confidence interval, 1.10-2.66). This association was not altered regardless of the indication for tonsillectomy (i.e. chronic/recurrent tonsillitis or sleep apnea/hypertrophy of tonsil) (p = 0.9797).

CONCLUSIONS

Based on our review of a nationwide cohort study we identified that the risk of deep neck infection is significantly increased among patients who have undergone a tonsillectomy. Additional research is needed to explore the possible mechanisms behind these findings.

Anti-tumor angiogenesis effect of genetic fusion vaccine encoding murine beta-defensin 2 and tumor endothelial marker-8 in a CT-26 murine colorectal carcinoma model

Tumor endothelial marker 8 (TEM8) is an endothelial-specific marker that is upregulated during tumor angiogenesis. We previously demonstrated that DNA-based vaccine encoding xenogeneic TEM8 can potentiate anti-angiogenesis immunotherapy of malignancy; nevertheless, it remains to be improved in minimizing immune tolerance. Recently, it has been reported that murine beta-defensin 2 (MBD2) is chemotactic for immature dendritic cells and plays a pivotal role in breaking immune tolerance. Herein, we constructed a genetic fusion vaccine encoding murine TEM8 and MBD2 to investigate whether the novel vaccine preferentially elicits therapeutic antitumor immune responses and suppresses cancerous angiogenesis in mouse models. The anti-angiogenesis effect was determined by microvessel density (MVD) using immunohistochemical staining. The efficacy of the fusion vaccine was primarily assessed by detecting cytotoxic T lymphocyte activity ((51)Cr-release assay). Enzyme-linked immunosorbent spot (ELISpot) assay was used to detect TEM8-specific INF-γ production, and the activity of CTL was further verified by a depletion of CD8(+) T cells via anti-CD8 monoclonal antibody. Our results showed that the DNA fusion vaccine possessed an enhanced therapeutic antitumor immunity through anti-angiogenesis in BALB/c mice inoculated with CT26 cells, and this effect was generally attributed to stimulation of an antigen specific CD8(+) T-cell response against mTEM8. In conclusion, our study demonstrated that the fusion vaccine based on mTEM8 and MBD2 induced autoimmunity against endothelial cells, resulting in deceleration of tumor growth, and could be potential therapeutical application in clinic.

A small intestinal organoid model of non-invasive enteric pathogen-epithelial cell interactions

Organoids mirror in vivo tissue organization and are powerful tools to investigate the development and cell biology of the small intestine. However, their application for the study of host-pathogen interactions has been largely unexplored. We have established a model using microinjection of organoids to mimic enteric infection, allowing for direct examination of pathogen interactions with primary epithelial cells in the absence of confounding variables introduced by immune cells or the commensal microbiota. We investigated the impact of Paneth cell α-defensin antimicrobial peptides on bacterial growth. We demonstrate that organoids form a sealed lumen, which contains concentrations of α-defensins capable of restricting growth of multiple strains of Salmonella enterica serovar Typhimurium for at least 20 h postinfection. Transgenic expression of human defensin 5 in mouse organoids lacking functional murine α-defensins partially restored bacterial killing. We also found that organoids from NOD2(-/-) mice were not impaired in α-defensin expression or antibacterial activity. This model is optimized for the study of non-invasive bacteria but can be extended to other enteric pathogens and is amenable to further genetic manipulation of both the host and microbe to dissect this critical interface of host defense.

Pentobra: A Potent Antibiotic with Multiple Layers of Selective Antimicrobial Mechanisms against Propionibacterium Acnes

Although antibiotics are a common treatment for acne, the difficulties inherent to effective antimicrobial penetration in sebum and selective antimicrobial action in skin are compounded by increasing resistance of Propionibacterium acnes clinical isolates. To address these problems, we engineered Pentobra, a peptide-aminoglycoside molecule which has multiple mechanisms of antibacterial action, and investigated whether it can be a potential candidate for the treatment of acne. Pentobra combines the potent ribosomal activity of aminoglycosides with the bacteria-selective membrane-permeabilizing abilities of antimicrobial peptides (AMPs). Pentobra demonstrated potent and selective killing of P. acnes, but not against human skin cells in vitro. In direct comparison, Pentobra demonstrated bactericidal activity and drastically outperformed free tobramycin (by 5–7 logs) against multiple P. acnes clinical strains. Moreover, EM studies showed that Pentobra had robust membrane activity, as treatment with Pentobra killed P. acnes cells and caused leakage of intracellular contents. Pentobra may also have potential anti-inflammatory effects as demonstrated by suppression of some P. acnes-induced chemokines. Importantly, the killing activity was maintained in sebaceous environments as Pentobra was bactericidal against clinical isolates in comedones extracts isolated from human donors. Our work demonstrates that equipping aminoglycosides with selective membrane activity is a viable approach for developing antibiotics against P. acnes that are effective in cutaneous environments.

Antimicrobial peptides: an alternative for innovative medicines?

Antimicrobial peptides are small molecules with activity against bacteria, yeasts, fungi, viruses, bacteria, and even tumor cells that make these molecules attractive as therapeutic agents. Due to the alarming increase of antimicrobial resistance, interest in alternative antimicrobial agents has led to the exploitation of antimicrobial peptides, both synthetic and from natural sources. Thus, many peptide-based drugs are currently commercially available for the treatment of numerous ailments, such as hepatitis C, myeloma, skin infections, and diabetes. Initial barriers are being increasingly overcome with the development of cost-effective, more stable peptides. Herein, we review the available strategies for their synthesis, bioinformatics tools for the rational design of antimicrobial peptides with enhanced therapeutic indices, hurdles and shortcomings limiting the large-scale production of AMPs, as well as the challenges that the pharmaceutical industry faces on their use as therapeutic agents.

Alpha-defensin HD5 inhibits furin cleavage of human papillomavirus 16 L2 to block infection

Human papillomavirus (HPV) is a significant oncogenic virus, but the innate immune response to HPV is poorly understood. Human α-defensin 5 (HD5) is an innate immune effector peptide secreted by epithelial cells in the genitourinary tract. HD5 is broadly antimicrobial, exhibiting potent antiviral activity against HPV at physiologic concentrations; however, the specific mechanism of HD5-mediated inhibition against HPV is unknown. During infection, the HPV capsid undergoes several critical cell-mediated viral protein processing steps, including unfolding and cleavage of the minor capsid protein L2 by host cyclophilin B and furin. Using HPV16 pseudovirus, we show that HD5 interacts directly with the virus and inhibits the furin-mediated cleavage of L2 at the cell surface during infection at a step downstream of the cyclophilin B-mediated unfolding of L2. Importantly, HD5 does not affect the enzymatic activity of furin directly. Thus, our data support a model in which HD5 prevents furin from accessing L2 by occluding the furin cleavage site via direct binding to the viral capsid.

IMPORTANCE

Our study elucidates a new antiviral action for α-defensins against nonenveloped viruses in which HD5 directly interferes with a critical host-mediated viral processing step, furin cleavage of L2, at the cell surface. Blocking this key event has deleterious effects on the intracellular steps of virus infection. Thus, in addition to informing the antiviral mechanisms of α-defensins, our studies highlight the critical role of furin cleavage in HPV entry. Innate immune control, mediated in part by α-defensins expressed in the genital mucosa, may influence susceptibility to HPV infections that lead to cervical cancer. Moreover, understanding the mechanism of these natural antivirals may inform the design of therapeutics to limit HPV infection.

The porcine innate immune system: an update

Over the last few years, we have seen an increasing interest and demand for pigs in biomedical research. Domestic pigs (Sus scrofa domesticus) are closely related to humans in terms of their anatomy, genetics, and physiology, and often are the model of choice for the assessment of novel vaccines and therapeutics in a preclinical stage. However, the pig as a model has much more to offer, and can serve as a model for many biomedical applications including aging research, medical imaging, and pharmaceutical studies to name a few. In this review, we will provide an overview of the innate immune system in pigs, describe its anatomical and physiological key features, and discuss the key players involved. In particular, we compare the porcine innate immune system to that of humans, and emphasize on the importance of the pig as model for human disease.