1
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Vergani S, Yuan J. Developmental changes in the rules for B cell selection. Immunol Rev 2021; 300:194-202. [PMID: 33501672 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12949] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 01/04/2021] [Accepted: 01/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The autoimmune checkpoint during B cell maturation eliminates self-antigen reactive specificities from the mature B cell repertoire. However, an exception to this rule is illustrated by B-1 cells, an innate-like self-reactive B cell subset that is positively selected into the mature B cell pool in a self-antigen-driven fashion. The mechanisms by which B-1 cells escape central tolerance have puzzled the field for decades. A key clue comes from their restricted developmental window during fetal and neonatal life. Here we use B-1 cells as a prototypic early life derived B cell subset to explore developmental changes in the constraints of B cell selection. We discuss recent advancements in the understanding of the molecular program, centered around the RNA binding protein Lin28b, that licenses self-reactive B-1 cell output during ontogeny. Finally, we speculate on the possible link between the unique rules of early life B cell tolerance and the establishment of B cell - microbial mutualism to propose an integrated model for how developmental and environmental cues come together to create a protective layer of B cell memory involved in neonatal immune imprinting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefano Vergani
- Developmental Immunology Unit, Division of Molecular Hematology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund Stem Cell Center, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
| | - Joan Yuan
- Developmental Immunology Unit, Division of Molecular Hematology, Department of Laboratory Medicine, Lund Stem Cell Center, Lund University, Lund, Sweden
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2
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Nowosad CR, Mesin L, Castro TBR, Wichmann C, Donaldson GP, Araki T, Schiepers A, Lockhart AAK, Bilate AM, Mucida D, Victora GD. Tunable dynamics of B cell selection in gut germinal centres. Nature 2020; 588:321-326. [PMID: 33116306 PMCID: PMC7726069 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-020-2865-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2020] [Accepted: 07/29/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs), structures normally associated with B cell immunoglobulin (Ig) hypermutation and development of high-affinity antibodies upon infection or immunization, are present in gut-associated lymphoid organs of humans and mice under steady state. Gut-associated (ga)GCs can support antibody responses to enteric infections and immunization1. However, whether B cell selection and antibody affinity maturation can take place in face of the chronic and diverse antigenic stimulation characteristic of steady-state gaGCs is less clear2–8. Combining multicolor “Brainbow” fate-mapping and single-cell Ig sequencing, we find that 5–10% of gaGCs from specific pathogen-free (SPF) mice contained highly-dominant “winner” clones at steady state, despite rapid turnover of GC B cells. Monoclonal antibodies (mAbs) derived from these clones showed increased binding to commensal bacteria compared to their unmutated ancestors, consistent with antigen-driven selection and affinity maturation. Frequency of highly-selected gaGCs was markedly higher in germ-free (GF) than in SPF mice, and winner B cells in GF gaGCs were enriched in public IgH clonotypes found across multiple individuals, indicating strong B cell receptor (BCR)-driven selection in the absence of microbiota. Vertical colonization of GF mice with a defined microbial consortium (Oligo-MM12) did not eliminate GF-associated clonotypes, yet induced a concomitant commensal-specific, affinity-matured B cell response. Thus, positive selection can take place in steady-state gaGCs, at a rate that is tunable over a wide range by the presence and composition of the microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carla R Nowosad
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.,Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Luka Mesin
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tiago B R Castro
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.,Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Christopher Wichmann
- Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.,Mucosal Immunology Group, Department of Pediatrics, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Gregory P Donaldson
- Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Tatsuya Araki
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Ariën Schiepers
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | | | - Angelina M Bilate
- Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Daniel Mucida
- Laboratory of Mucosal Immunology, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
| | - Gabriel D Victora
- Laboratory of Lymphocyte Dynamics, The Rockefeller University, New York, NY, USA.
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3
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Reboldi A, Cyster JG. Peyer's patches: organizing B-cell responses at the intestinal frontier. Immunol Rev 2016; 271:230-45. [PMID: 27088918 DOI: 10.1111/imr.12400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 198] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Secondary lymphoid tissues share the important function of bringing together antigens and rare antigen-specific lymphocytes to foster induction of adaptive immune responses. Peyer's patches (PPs) are unique compared to other secondary lymphoid tissues in their continual exposure to an enormous diversity of microbiome- and food-derived antigens and in the types of pathogens they encounter. Antigens are delivered to PPs by specialized microfold (M) epithelial cells and they may be captured and presented by resident dendritic cells (DCs). In accord with their state of chronic microbial antigen exposure, PPs exhibit continual germinal center (GC) activity. These GCs not only contribute to the generation of B cells and plasma cells producing somatically mutated gut antigen-specific IgA antibodies but have also been suggested to support non-specific antigen diversification of the B-cell repertoire. Here, we review current understanding of how PPs foster B-cell encounters with antigen, how they favor isotype switching to the secretory IgA isotype, and how their GC responses may uniquely contribute to mucosal immunity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Reboldi
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Jason G Cyster
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA
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4
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Abstract
A20 (TNFAIP3), known to inhibit NF-κB function by deubiquitinating-specific NF-κB signaling molecules, has been found in many cell types of the immune system. Recent findings suggest that A20 is essential for the development and functional performance of dendritic cell, B cell, T cell and macrophage. A number of studies further demonstrate that these cells are crucial in the pathogenesis of autoimmune diseases, such as type 1 diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus, inflammatory bowel disease, ankylosing arthritis, Sjögren's syndrome and rheumatoid arthritis. In this article, we focus on the recent advances on the roles of A20 in autoimmune diseases and discuss the therapeutic significance of these new findings.
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5
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TFH cells progressively differentiate to regulate the germinal center response. Nat Immunol 2016; 17:1197-1205. [PMID: 27573866 PMCID: PMC5030190 DOI: 10.1038/ni.3554] [Citation(s) in RCA: 261] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Accepted: 08/08/2016] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Germinal center (GC) B cells undergo affinity selection, which depends on interactions with CD4(+) follicular helper T cells (TFH cells). We found that TFH cells progressed through transcriptionally and functionally distinct stages and provided differential signals for GC regulation. They initially localized proximally to mutating B cells, secreted interleukin 21 (IL-21), induced expression of the transcription factor Bcl-6 and selected high-affinity B cell clones. As the GC response evolved, TFH cells extinguished IL-21 production and switched to IL-4 production, showed robust expression of the co-stimulatory molecule CD40L, and promoted the development of antibody-secreting B cells via upregulation of the transcription factor Blimp-1. Thus, TFH cells in the B cell follicle progressively differentiate through stages of localization, cytokine production and surface ligand expression to 'fine tune' the GC reaction.
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6
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BacteroidesInduce Higher IgA Production ThanLactobacillusby Increasing Activation-Induced Cytidine Deaminase Expression in B Cells in Murine Peyer’s Patches. Biosci Biotechnol Biochem 2014; 73:372-7. [DOI: 10.1271/bbb.80612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
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7
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Kato LM, Kawamoto S, Maruya M, Fagarasan S. Gut TFH and IgA: key players for regulation of bacterial communities and immune homeostasis. Immunol Cell Biol 2013; 92:49-56. [PMID: 24100385 DOI: 10.1038/icb.2013.54] [Citation(s) in RCA: 75] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 08/28/2013] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
The main function of the immune system is to protect the host against pathogens. However, unlike the systemic immune system, the gut immune system does not eliminate, but instead nourishes complex bacterial communities and establishes advanced symbiotic relationships. Immunoglobulin A (IgA) is the most abundant antibody isotype in mammals, produced mainly in the gut. The primary function of IgA is to maintain homeostasis at mucosal surfaces, and studies in mice have demonstrated that IgA diversification has an essential role in the regulation of gut microbiota. Dynamic diversification and constant adaptation of IgA responses to local microbiota require expression of activation-induced cytidine deaminase by B cells and control from T follicular helper and Foxp3(+) T cells in germinal centers (GCs). We discuss the finely tuned regulatory mechanisms for IgA synthesis in GCs of Peyer's patches and emphasize the roles of CD4(+) T cells for IgA selection and the maintenance of appropriate gut microbial communities required for immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lucia M Kato
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences IMS-RCAI, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Shimpei Kawamoto
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences IMS-RCAI, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Mikako Maruya
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences IMS-RCAI, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Yokohama, Japan
| | - Sidonia Fagarasan
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, Center for Integrative Medical Sciences IMS-RCAI, RIKEN Yokohama Institute, Yokohama, Japan
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8
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Roy B, Agarwal S, Brennecke AM, Krey M, Pabst O, Düber S, Weiss S. B-1-cell subpopulations contribute differently to gut immunity. Eur J Immunol 2013; 43:2023-32. [PMID: 23677546 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201243070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2012] [Revised: 04/03/2013] [Accepted: 05/10/2013] [Indexed: 01/15/2023]
Abstract
In mice, B-1 (B1a/B1b) cells are mainly located in the peritoneal cavity. B-1 cells are well known for their role in the early stages of Ab-mediated immune responses against pathogenic invasion as well as for the production of natural IgM antibodies. Although such B cells have been claimed to give rise to intestinal plasma cells producing IgA, a clear role of B-1 cells in IgA production in the gut-associated tissues is still not defined. Here, we employed the transgenic L2 mouse model characterized by the lack of B-2 cells and presence of B-1 cells as major B-cell subpopulation. The oligoclonality of the Ab repertoire in this mouse allowed us to take typical B1a cell VH sequences as indicators of the presence of IgM-producing B-1a cells in Peyer's patches as well as in lamina propria. However, amongst the IgAVH sequences recovered from the same tissues, none of the sequences showed B1a-cell specificity. Interestingly, all IgAVH sequences derived from the lamina propria of L2 mice displayed extensive numbers of nucleotide exchanges, indicating somatic hypermutation, and affinity maturation. This suggests that the contribution of natural unmutated IgA by B-1a cells to intestinal immunity is negligible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bishnudeo Roy
- Molecular Immunology, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany.
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9
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Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs) are sites of rapid B-cell proliferation and somatic mutation. These ovoid structures develop within the center of follicles and grow to a stereotypic size. The cell migration and interaction dynamics underlying GC B-cell selection events are currently under intense scrutiny. In recent study, we identified a role for a migration inhibitory receptor, S1PR2, in promoting GC B-cell confinement to GCs. S1PR2 also dampens Akt activation and deficiency in S1PR2 or components of its signaling pathway result in a loss of growth control in chronically stimulated mucosal GCs. Herein, we detail present understanding of S1PR2 and S1P biology as it pertains to GC B cells and place this information in the context of a current model of GC function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jesse A Green
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Howard Hughes Medical Institute, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414, USA
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10
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Cerutti A, Cols M, Gentile M, Cassis L, Barra CM, He B, Puga I, Chen K. Regulation of mucosal IgA responses: lessons from primary immunodeficiencies. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2012; 1238:132-44. [PMID: 22129060 DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2011.06266.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Adaptive co-evolution of mammals and bacteria has led to the establishment of complex commensal communities on mucosal surfaces. In spite of having available a wealth of immune-sensing and effector mechanisms capable of triggering inflammation in response to microbial intrusion, mucosal immune cells establish an intimate dialogue with microbes to generate a state of hyporesponsiveness against commensals and active readiness against pathogens. A key component of this homeostatic balance is IgA, a noninflammatory antibody isotype produced by mucosal B cells through class switching. This process involves activation of B cells by IgA-inducing signals originating from mucosal T cells, dendritic cells, and epithelial cells. Here, we review the mechanisms by which mucosal B cells undergo IgA diversification and production and discuss how the study of primary immunodeficiencies facilitates better understanding of mucosal IgA responses in humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cerutti
- Municipal Institute for Medical Research-Hospital del Mar, Barcelona, Spain.
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11
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Abstract
Mucosal surfaces are colonized by large communities of commensal bacteria and represent the primary site of entry for pathogenic agents. To prevent microbial intrusion, mucosal B cells release large amounts of immunoglobulin (Ig) molecules through multiple follicular and extrafollicular pathways. IgA is the most abundant antibody isotype in mucosal secretions and owes its success in frontline immunity to its ability to undergo transcytosis across epithelial cells. In addition to translocating IgA onto the mucosal surface, epithelial cells educate the mucosal immune system as to the composition of the local microbiota and instruct B cells to initiate IgA responses that generate immune protection while preserving immune homeostasis. Here we review recent advances in our understanding of the cellular interactions and signaling pathways governing IgA production at mucosal surfaces and discuss new findings on the regulation and function of mucosal IgD, the most enigmatic isotype of our mucosal antibody repertoire.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Cerutti
- ICREA, Catalan Institute for Research and Advanced Studies, Barcelona Biomedical Research Park, Spain.
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12
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Suzuki K, Kawamoto S, Maruya M, Fagarasan S. GALT: organization and dynamics leading to IgA synthesis. Adv Immunol 2011; 107:153-85. [PMID: 21034974 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-12-381300-8.00006-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery more than four decades ago, immunoglobulin (Ig) A has been the subject of continuous and intensive studies. The major concepts derived were that the precursors of IgA plasma cells are generated in follicular organized structures with the help of T cells and the secreted IgAs provide protection against mucosal pathogens. However, only recently we began to appreciate that IgAs play key roles in regulation of bacterial communities in the intestine and that the repertoire of gut microbiota is closely linked to the proper functioning of the immune system. In this review, we highlight the complex and dynamic mutualistic relationships between bacteria and immune cells and discuss the sites and pathways leading to IgA synthesis in gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT).
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Affiliation(s)
- Keiichiro Suzuki
- Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, RIKEN Yokohama Tsurumi, Yokohama, Japan
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13
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Hövelmeyer N, Reissig S, Xuan NT, Adams-Quack P, Lukas D, Nikolaev A, Schlüter D, Waisman A. A20 deficiency in B cells enhances B-cell proliferation and results in the development of autoantibodies. Eur J Immunol 2011; 41:595-601. [PMID: 21341261 DOI: 10.1002/eji.201041313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 83] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2010] [Revised: 12/20/2010] [Accepted: 12/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
A20/TNFAIP3 is an ubiquitin-editing enzyme, important for the regulation of the NF-κB pathway. Mutations in the TNFAIP3 gene have been linked to different human autoimmune disorders. In human B-cell lymphomas, the inactivation of A20 results in constitutive NF-κB activation. Recent studies demonstrate that in mice the germline inactivation of A20 leads to early lethality, due to inflammation in multiple organs of the body. In this report, we describe a new mouse strain allowing for the tissue-specific deletion of A20. We show that B-cell-specific deletion of A20 results in a dramatic reduction in marginal zone B cells. Furthermore, A20-deficient B cells display a hyperactive phenotype represented by enhanced proliferation upon activation. Finally, these mice develop higher levels of serum immunoglobulins, resulting in an excessive production of self-reactive autoantibodies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nadine Hövelmeyer
- Institute for Molecular Medicine, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg-University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany.
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14
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Daley-Bauer LP, Purdy SR, Smith MC, Gagliardo LF, Davis WC, Appleton JA. Contributions of conventional and heavy-chain IgG to immunity in fetal, neonatal, and adult alpacas. CLINICAL AND VACCINE IMMUNOLOGY : CVI 2010; 17:2007-15. [PMID: 20926693 PMCID: PMC3008178 DOI: 10.1128/cvi.00287-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2010] [Revised: 08/06/2010] [Accepted: 09/20/2010] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
In addition to conventional immunoglobulins, camelids produce antibodies that do not incorporate light chains into their structures. These so-called heavy-chain (HC) antibodies have incited great interest in the biomedical community, as they have considerable potential for biotechnological and therapeutic application. Recently, we have begun to elucidate the immunological functions of HC antibodies, yet little is known about their significance in maternal immunity or about the B lymphocytes that produce them. This study describes the application of isotype-specific reagents toward physiological assessments of camelid IgGs and the B cells that produce them. We document the specificities of monoclonal antibodies that distinguish two conventional IgG1 isotypes and two HC IgG3 variants produced by alpacas. Next, we report that the relative concentrations of five isotypes are similar in serum, milk, and colostrum; however, following passive transfer, the concentrations of HC IgG2 and IgG3 declined more rapidly than the concentration of conventional IgG1 in the sera of neonates. Finally, we assessed the distribution of B cells of distinct isotypes within lymphoid tissues during fetal and adult life. We detected IgG1, IgG2, and IgG3 in lymphocytes located in lymph node follicles, suggesting that HC B cells affinity mature and/or class switch. One IgG3 isotype was present in B cells located in ileal Peyer's patches, and one conventional IgG1 isotype was detected in splenic marginal zone B cells. Our findings contribute to the growing body of knowledge pertaining to HC antibodies and are compatible with functional specialization among conventional and HC IgGs in the alpaca.
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Affiliation(s)
- L. P. Daley-Bauer
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - S. R. Purdy
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - M. C. Smith
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - L. F. Gagliardo
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - W. C. Davis
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
| | - J. A. Appleton
- James A. Baker Institute for Animal Health, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Department of Veterinary and Animal Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Hadley, Massachusetts 01035, Department of Population Medicine and Diagnostic Sciences, Cornell University, Ithaca, New York 14853, Veterinary Microbiology and Pathology, Washington State University, College of Veterinary Medicine, Pullman, Washington 99164
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15
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Abstract
There are great interest and demand for the development of vaccines to prevent and treat diverse microbial infections. Mucosal vaccines elicit immune protection by stimulating the production of antibodies at mucosal surfaces and systemic districts. Being positioned in close proximity to a large community of commensal microbes, the mucosal immune system deploys a heterogeneous population of cells and a complex regulatory network to maintain the balance between surveillance and tolerance. A successful mucosal vaccine relies on leveraging the functions of these immune cells and regulatory components. We review the important cellular interactions and molecular pathways underlying the induction and regulation of mucosal antibody responses and discuss their implications on mucosal vaccination.
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16
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Fagarasan S, Kawamoto S, Kanagawa O, Suzuki K. Adaptive immune regulation in the gut: T cell-dependent and T cell-independent IgA synthesis. Annu Rev Immunol 2010; 28:243-73. [PMID: 20192805 DOI: 10.1146/annurev-immunol-030409-101314] [Citation(s) in RCA: 350] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
In mammals, the gastrointestinal tract harbors an extraordinarily dense and complex community of microorganisms. The gut microbiota provide strong selective pressure to the host to evolve adaptive immune responses required for the maintenance of local and systemic homeostasis. The continuous antigenic presence in the gut imposes a dynamic remodeling of gut-associated lymphoid tissues (GALT) and the selection of multiple layered strategies for immunoglobulin (Ig) A production. The composite and dynamic gut environment also necessitates heterogeneous, versatile, and convertible T cells, capable of inhibiting (Foxp3(+) T cells) or helping (T(FH) cells) local immune responses. In this review, we describe recent advances in our understanding of dynamic pathways that lead to IgA synthesis, in gut follicular structures and in extrafollicular sites, by T cell-dependent and T cell-independent mechanisms. We discuss the finely tuned regulatory mechanisms for IgA production and emphasize the role of mucosal IgA in the selection and maintenance of the appropriate microbial composition that is necessary for immune homeostasis.
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17
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Fragkou I, Dagleish M, Papaioannou N, Cripps P, Boscos C, Ververidis H, Orfanou D, Solomakos N, Finlayson J, Govaris A, Kyriazakis I, Fthenakis G. The induction of lymphoid follicle-like structures in the ovine teat duct following experimental infection with Mannheimia haemolytica. Vet J 2010; 184:194-200. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tvjl.2009.01.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/11/2008] [Revised: 01/26/2009] [Accepted: 01/31/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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18
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Pone EJ, Zan H, Zhang J, Al-Qahtani A, Xu Z, Casali P. Toll-like receptors and B-cell receptors synergize to induce immunoglobulin class-switch DNA recombination: relevance to microbial antibody responses. Crit Rev Immunol 2010; 30:1-29. [PMID: 20370617 PMCID: PMC3038989 DOI: 10.1615/critrevimmunol.v30.i1.10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Differentiation of naïve B cells, including immunoglobulin class-switch DNA recombination, is critical for the immune response and depends on the extensive integration of signals from the B-cell receptor (BCR), tumor necrosis factor (TNF) family members, Toll-like receptors (TLRs), and cytokine receptors. TLRs and BCR synergize to induce class-switch DNA recombination in T cell-dependent and T cell-independent antibody responses to microbial pathogens. BCR triggering together with simultaneous endosomal TLR engagement leads to enhanced B-cell differentiation and antibody responses. Te requirement of both BCR and TLR engagement would ensure appropriate antigen-specific activation in an infection. Co-stimulation of TLRs and BCR likely plays a significant role in anti-microbial antibody responses to contain pathogen loads until the T cell-dependent antibody responses peak. Furthermore, the temporal sequence of different signals is also critical for optimal B cell responses, as exemplified by the activation of B cells by initial TLR engagement, leading to the up-regulation of co-stimulatory CD80 and MCH-II receptors, which result in more efficient interactions with T cells, thereby enhancing the germinal center reaction and antibody affinity maturation. Overall, BCR and TLR stimulation and the integration with signals from the pathogen or immune cells and their products determine the ensuing B-cell antibody response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Egest J. Pone
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
| | - Hong Zan
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
| | - Jinsong Zhang
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
| | - Ahmed Al-Qahtani
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
| | - Zhenming Xu
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
| | - Paolo Casali
- Institute for Immunology, School of Medicine and School of Biological Sciences, University of California, Irvine, CA 92697-4120, USA
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19
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Deng ZY, Guo GH, Xing JJ, Zhao XL, Cui Q, Yang Y. Effects of early enteral glutamine supplementation on lymphocyte subpopulations in Peyer's patches in scalded rats. Shijie Huaren Xiaohua Zazhi 2009; 17:2679-2685. [DOI: 10.11569/wcjd.v17.i26.2679] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
AIM: To investigate the changes in the number of total lymphocytes and each lymphocyte subpopulation in Peyer's patches in scalded rats receiving different nutrition support, and examine the effects of glutamine (Gln) supplementation on intestinal immunity.
METHODS: Healthy adult Sprague-Dawley rats were subjected to a 30% TBSA third-degree scald injury to induce scald injury. Scalded rats were randomly divided into standard enteral nutrition group (EN group) and glutamine supplementation group (EN plus Gln group). Rats in the EN group were fed standard enteral nutrition (Nutrison Multi Fibre) while those in the EN plus Gln group were fed standard enteral nutrition plus Gln. The number of total lymphocytes and each lymphocyte subpopulation in Peyer's patches were then determined by flow cytometry on days 1, 4, 7 and 10 after feeding.
RESULTS: The number of total lymphocytes, especially B lymphocytes, in Peyer's patches significantly decreased in response to scald induction. The number of total lymphocytes in Peyer's patches in rats in the EN plus Gln group, but not in the EN group, returned to normal on day 7 after scald induction [(5.29 ± 1.03) × 106vs (6.13 ± 1.14) × 106, P > 0.05]. The total number of B cells in Peyer's patches in rats in the EN plus Gln group on days 7 and 10 showed no significant changes when compared with pre-induction value [(2.87 ± 0.69) × 106 and (3.05 ± 0.72) × 106vs (3.29 ± 0.62) × 106, respectively; both P> 0.05]. In contrast, the total number of B cells in Peyer's patches in rats in the EN group on day 10 was significantly lower than pre-induction value [(2.07 ± 0.63) × 106vs (3.29 ± 0.62) × 106; P < 0.05]. Scald induction had no significant effect on the number of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes (both P > 0.05).
CONCLUSION: The number of total lymphocytes decreases significantly in response to scald induction. Early enteral glutamine supplementation can promote lymphocyte proliferation, increase the number of total lymphocytes (especially B cells) in Peyer's patches, and enhance intestinal immunity in scalded rats.
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Abstract
Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a tryptophan catabolizing enzyme that has a number of immunoregulatory effects. It is expressed at high levels in the gastrointestinal tract, particularly in the small intestine, and has been implicated in the control of intestinal inflammation. However, its precise role in intestinal immunity is not well understood. This review will summarize the current state of knowledge about IDO function, particularly as it pertains to inflammatory responses in the gut.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bobby J Cherayil
- Pediatric Gastroenterology Unit, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA.
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21
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Fagarasan S. Evolution, development, mechanism and function of IgA in the gut. Curr Opin Immunol 2008; 20:170-7. [PMID: 18456485 DOI: 10.1016/j.coi.2008.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 71] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2008] [Revised: 04/03/2008] [Accepted: 04/07/2008] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery as the most abundant Ig produced at mucosal surfaces, IgA has been the subject of continuous studies. The concepts emerged were that the precursors for IgA plasma cells are efficiently generated in follicular organized structures in the gut with the help of CD4 T cells and that secretory IgA provides protection against mucosal pathogens. Novel conceptual advances have been made in the past few years in describing new sites, mechanisms and functions of mucosal IgA synthesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sidonia Fagarasan
- Laboratory for Mucosal Immunity, RIKEN Research Center for Allergy and Immunology, 230-0045 Tsurumi, Yokohama, Japan.
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Deficiency of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase enhances commensal-induced antibody responses and protects against Citrobacter rodentium-induced colitis. Infect Immun 2008; 76:3045-53. [PMID: 18426872 DOI: 10.1128/iai.00193-08] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) is a negative regulator of lymphocyte responses that is expressed predominantly in macrophages and dendritic cells. We detected it at high levels in the small intestine and mesenteric lymph node of young adult mice, suggesting a role in intestinal immunity. Consistent with this idea, we found that IDO-deficient mice had elevated baseline levels of immunoglobulin A (IgA) and IgG in the serum and increased IgA in intestinal secretions. These abnormalities were corrected by a course of broad-spectrum oral antibiotics started at weaning, indicating that they were dependent on the intestinal microbiota. Kynurenine and picolinic acid, two IDO-generated metabolites of tryptophan, were able to inhibit lipopolysaccharide-induced antibody production by splenocytes in vitro, and kynurenine also induced B-cell apoptosis, findings that provide an explanation for the elevated Ig levels in animals lacking IDO. The intestinal secretions of IDO-deficient mice had elevated levels of IgA antibodies that cross-reacted with the gram-negative enteric bacterial pathogen Citrobacter rodentium. In keeping with the functional importance of this natural secretory IgA, the mutant animals were more resistant to intestinal colonization by Citrobacter, developed lower levels of serum Citrobacter-specific IgM and IgG antibodies following oral infection, and had significantly attenuated Citrobacter-induced colitis. Our observations point to an important role for IDO in the regulation of immunity to the gut commensal microbiota that has a significant impact on the response to intestinal pathogens.
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23
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Allen CDC, Cyster JG. Follicular dendritic cell networks of primary follicles and germinal centers: phenotype and function. Semin Immunol 2008; 20:14-25. [PMID: 18261920 DOI: 10.1016/j.smim.2007.12.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 310] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2007] [Accepted: 12/06/2007] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Follicular dendritic cells (FDCs) were identified decades ago by their ability to retain immune complexes and more recent findings indicate that they are a source of B cell attractants and trophic factors. New imaging studies have shown that B cells closely associate with their dendritic processes during migration. Here we will review the properties of these specialized follicular stromal cells and provide an update on the requirements for their maturation into phenotypically distinct cells within germinal center light and dark zones. We will then discuss current understanding of how they help support the B cell immune response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D C Allen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute and Department of Microbiology and Immunology, 513 Parnassus Avenue, Box 0414, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414, USA.
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Allen CDC, Okada T, Cyster JG. Germinal-center organization and cellular dynamics. Immunity 2007; 27:190-202. [PMID: 17723214 PMCID: PMC2242846 DOI: 10.1016/j.immuni.2007.07.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 686] [Impact Index Per Article: 40.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/12/2007] [Accepted: 07/02/2007] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Germinal centers (GCs) are important sites of antibody affinity maturation. In the classical model, the GC dark zone contains large centroblasts that are rapidly proliferating and undergoing somatic hypermutation of their antibody variable-region genes. Centroblasts give rise to smaller nonproliferating centrocytes in the light zone that compete for binding antigen on follicular dendritic cells. Recently, the approach of real-time imaging of GCs by two-photon microscopy of intact lymph nodes has provided new insights into GC dynamics that both support and challenge fundamental aspects of this model. Here we review recent and older findings on cell migration, proliferation, and interaction dynamics in the GC and discuss a model in which dark- and light-zone cells are morphologically similar, proliferation occurs in both zones, and GC B cells compete for T cell help as well as antigen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher D C Allen
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0414, USA.
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