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Vellozo-Echevarría T, Barrett K, Vuillemin M, Meyer AS. Mini-Review: The Distinct Carbohydrate Active Enzyme Secretome of Rhizopus spp. Represents Fitness for Mycelium Remodeling and Solid-State Plant Food Fermentation. ACS OMEGA 2024; 9:34185-34195. [PMID: 39157082 PMCID: PMC11325530 DOI: 10.1021/acsomega.4c04378] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2024] [Revised: 07/16/2024] [Accepted: 07/19/2024] [Indexed: 08/20/2024]
Abstract
Rhizopus is a genus of filamentous fungi belonging to the Mucoromycota division. Rhizopus species produce a white, dense mycelium, which is used to create tempeh, a solid-state fermented Asian soybean product, that is gaining renewed attention as a proteinaceous plant food. The profile of carbohydrate-active enzymes (CAZymes) of a fungus or group of fungi, particularly the secretome CAZymes profile, reflects adaptation to different lifestyles and habitats, and has a significant impact on fermentative capacity. This review examines the CAZymes profiles of Rhizopus species focusing on their implication for carbohydrate utilization and solid-state fermentation of plant materials. Through comprehensive genomic assessments and comparisons with other filamentous fungi, we particularly highlight how the unique CAZymes secretome profile is closely correlated with the taxonomy and ecological niches of Rhizopus species. We discuss how the CAZymes secretome capacity of Rhizopus species differs from other fungi and summarize the current state of knowledge regarding the specific CAZymes involved in the modification of carbohydrates in the fungal cell wall and in plant cell walls. We foresee that advanced genomic and proteomic technologies will be used to expand the biotechnology applications of Rhizopus spp.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tomás Vellozo-Echevarría
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme
Technology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU
Bioengineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Kristian Barrett
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme
Technology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU
Bioengineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Marlene Vuillemin
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme
Technology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU
Bioengineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
| | - Anne S. Meyer
- Protein Chemistry and Enzyme
Technology Section, Department of Biotechnology and Biomedicine, DTU
Bioengineering, Technical University of
Denmark, Building 221, DK-2800 Kgs. Lyngby, Denmark
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Li Y, Chadwick B, Pham T, Xie X, Lin X. Aspartyl peptidase May1 induces host inflammatory response by altering cell wall composition in the fungal pathogen Cryptococcus neoformans. mBio 2024; 15:e0092024. [PMID: 38742885 PMCID: PMC11237595 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.00920-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2024] [Accepted: 04/09/2024] [Indexed: 05/16/2024] Open
Abstract
Cryptococcus neoformans causes cryptococcal meningoencephalitis, a disease that kills more than 180,000 people annually. Contributing to its success as a fungal pathogen is its cell wall surrounded by a capsule. When the cryptococcal cell wall is compromised, exposed pathogen-associated molecular pattern molecules (PAMPs) could trigger host recognition and initiate attack against this fungus. Thus, cell wall composition and structure are tightly regulated. The cryptococcal cell wall is unusual in that chitosan, the acetylated form of chitin, is predominant over chitin and is essential for virulence. Recently, it was shown that acidic pH weakens the cell wall and increases exposure of PAMPs partly due to decreased chitosan levels. However, the molecular mechanism responsible for the cell wall remodeling in acidic pH is unknown. In this study, by screening for genes involved in cryptococcal tolerance to high levels of CO2, we serendipitously discovered that the aspartyl peptidase May1 contributes to cryptococcal sensitivity to high levels of CO2 due to acidification of unbuffered media. Overexpression of MAY1 increases the cryptococcal cell size and elevates PAMP exposure, causing a hyper-inflammatory response in the host while MAY1 deletion does the opposite. We discovered that May1 weakens the cell wall and reduces the chitosan level, partly due to its involvement in the degradation of Chs3, the sole chitin synthase that supplies chitin to be converted to chitosan. Consistently, overexpression of CHS3 largely rescues the phenotype of MAY1oe in acidic media. Collectively, we demonstrate that May1 remodels the cryptococcal cell wall in acidic pH by reducing chitosan levels through its influence on Chs3. IMPORTANCE The fungal cell wall is a dynamic structure, monitoring and responding to internal and external stimuli. It provides a formidable armor to the fungus. However, in a weakened state, the cell wall also triggers host immune attack when PAMPs, including glucan, chitin, and mannoproteins, are exposed. In this work, we found that the aspartyl peptidase May1 impairs the cell wall of Cryptococcus neoformans and increases the exposure of PAMPs in the acidic environment by reducing the chitosan level. Under acidic conditions, May1 is involved in the degradation of the chitin synthase Chs3, which supplies chitin to be deacetylated to chitosan. Consistently, the severe deficiency of chitosan in acidic pH can be rescued by overexpressing CHS3. These findings improve our understanding of cell wall remodeling and reveal a potential target to compromise the cell wall integrity in this important fungal pathogen.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yeqi Li
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Benjamin Chadwick
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Tuyetnhu Pham
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiaofeng Xie
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
| | - Xiaorong Lin
- Department of Microbiology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
- Department of Plant Biology, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia, USA
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Yugueros SI, Peláez J, Stajich JE, Fuertes-Rabanal M, Sánchez-Vallet A, Largo-Gosens A, Mélida H. Study of fungal cell wall evolution through its monosaccharide composition: An insight into fungal species interacting with plants. Cell Surf 2024; 11:100127. [PMID: 38873189 PMCID: PMC11170279 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2024.100127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2024] [Revised: 05/20/2024] [Accepted: 05/24/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024] Open
Abstract
Every fungal cell is encapsulated in a cell wall, essential for cell viability, morphogenesis, and pathogenesis. Most knowledge of the cell wall composition in fungi has focused on ascomycetes, especially human pathogens, but considerably less is known about early divergent fungal groups, such as species in the Zoopagomycota and Mucoromycota phyla. To shed light on evolutionary changes in the fungal cell wall, we studied the monosaccharide composition of the cell wall of 18 species including early diverging fungi and species in the Basidiomycota and Ascomycota phyla with a focus on those with pathogenic lifestyles and interactions with plants. Our data revealed that chitin is the most characteristic component of the fungal cell wall, and was found to be in a higher proportion in the early divergent groups. The Mucoromycota species possess few glucans, but instead have other monosaccharides such as fucose and glucuronic acid that are almost exclusively found in their cell walls. Additionally, we observed that hexoses (glucose, mannose and galactose) accumulate in much higher proportions in species belonging to Dikarya. Our data demonstrate a clear relationship between phylogenetic position and fungal cell wall carbohydrate composition and lay the foundation for a better understanding of their evolution and their role in plant interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara I. Yugueros
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Jorge Peláez
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Jason E. Stajich
- Department of Microbiology and Plant Pathology and Institute of Integrative Genome Biology, University of California, Riverside, CA, USA
| | - María Fuertes-Rabanal
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Andrea Sánchez-Vallet
- Centro de Biotecnología y Genómica de Plantas, Universidad Politécnica de Madrid (UPM) - Instituto Nacional de Investigación y Tecnología Agraria y Alimentaria (INIA/CSIC), Campus de Montegancedo UPM, Pozuelo de Alarcón (Madrid), Spain
| | - Asier Largo-Gosens
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain
| | - Hugo Mélida
- Área de Fisiología Vegetal, Departamento de Ingeniería y Ciencias Agrarias, Universidad de León, León, Spain
- Instituto de Biología Molecular, Genómica y Proteómica (INBIOMIC), Universidad de León, León, Spain
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Fattouh N, Husni R, Finianos M, Bitar I, Khalaf RA. Adhesive and biofilm-forming Candida glabrata Lebanese hospital isolates harbour mutations in subtelomeric silencers and adhesins. Mycoses 2024; 67:e13750. [PMID: 38813959 DOI: 10.1111/myc.13750] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/08/2024] [Revised: 05/15/2024] [Accepted: 05/20/2024] [Indexed: 05/31/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The prevalence of Candida glabrata healthcare-associated infections is on the rise worldwide and in Lebanon, Candida glabrata infections are difficult to treat as a result of their resistance to azole antifungals and their ability to form biofilms. OBJECTIVES The first objective of this study was to quantify biofilm biomass in the most virulent C. glabrata isolates detected in a Lebanese hospital. In addition, other pathogenicity attributes were evaluated. The second objective was to identify the mechanisms of azole resistance in those isolates. METHODS A mouse model of disseminated systemic infection was developed to evaluate the degree of virulence of 41 azole-resistant C. glabrata collected from a Lebanese hospital. The most virulent isolates were further evaluated alongside an isolate having attenuated virulence and a reference strain for comparative purposes. A DNA-sequencing approach was adopted to detect single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) leading to amino acid changes in proteins involved in azole resistance and biofilm formation. This genomic approach was supported by several phenotypic assays. RESULTS All chosen virulent isolates exhibited increased adhesion and biofilm biomass compared to the isolate having attenuated virulence. The amino acid substitutions D679E and I739N detected in the subtelomeric silencer Sir3 are potentially involved- in increased adhesion. In all isolates, amino acid substitutions were detected in the ATP-binding cassette transporters Cdr1 and Pdh1 and their transcriptional regulator Pdr1. CONCLUSIONS In summary, increased adhesion led to stable biofilm formation since mutated Sir3 could de-repress adhesins, while decreased azole susceptibility could result from mutations in Cdr1, Pdh1 and Pdr1.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nour Fattouh
- Department of Natural Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
- Department of Biology, Saint George University of Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Rola Husni
- School of Medicine, Lebanese American University, Beirut, Lebanon
- Lebanese American University Medical Center, Rizk Hospital, Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Marc Finianos
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Ibrahim Bitar
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Medicine, University Hospital in Pilsen, Charles University, Pilsen, Czech Republic
- Biomedical Center, Faculty of Medicine, Charles University, Pilsen, Czech Republic
| | - Roy A Khalaf
- Department of Natural Sciences, Lebanese American University, Byblos, Lebanon
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5
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Tong L, Li Y, Lou X, Wang B, Jin C, Fang W. Powerful cell wall biomass degradation enzymatic system from saprotrophic Aspergillus fumigatus. Cell Surf 2024; 11:100126. [PMID: 38827922 PMCID: PMC11143905 DOI: 10.1016/j.tcsw.2024.100126] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2024] [Revised: 05/08/2024] [Accepted: 05/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Cell wall biomass, Earth's most abundant natural resource, holds significant potential for sustainable biofuel production. Composed of cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, pectin, and other polymers, the plant cell wall provides essential structural support to diverse organisms in nature. In contrast, non-plant species like insects, crustaceans, and fungi rely on chitin as their primary structural polysaccharide. The saprophytic fungus Aspergillus fumigatus has been widely recognized for its adaptability to various environmental conditions. It achieves this by secreting different cell wall biomass degradation enzymes to obtain essential nutrients. This review compiles a comprehensive collection of cell wall degradation enzymes derived from A. fumigatus, including cellulases, hemicellulases, various chitin degradation enzymes, and other polymer degradation enzymes. Notably, these enzymes exhibit biochemical characteristics such as temperature tolerance or acid adaptability, indicating their potential applications across a spectrum of industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lige Tong
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Yunaying Li
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Innovation Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, Baoding, Hebei, China
| | - Xinke Lou
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
- College of Life Sciences, Hebei Innovation Center for Bioengineering and Biotechnology, Institute of Life Sciences and Green Development, Baoding, Hebei, China
| | - Bin Wang
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
| | - Cheng Jin
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
- State Key Laboratory of Mycology, Institute of Microbiology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Wenxia Fang
- National Key Laboratory of Non-food Biomass Energy Technology, Institute of Biological Sciences and Technology, Guangxi Academy of Sciences, Nanning, Guangxi, China
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Pinto J, Tavakolian N, Li CB, Stelkens R. The relationship between cell density and cell count differs among Saccharomyces yeast species. MICROPUBLICATION BIOLOGY 2024; 2024:10.17912/micropub.biology.001215. [PMID: 38863984 PMCID: PMC11165304 DOI: 10.17912/micropub.biology.001215] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2024] [Revised: 05/07/2024] [Accepted: 05/21/2024] [Indexed: 06/13/2024]
Abstract
There is a recent push to develop wild and non-domesticated Saccharomyces yeast strains into useful model systems for research in ecology and evolution. Yet, the variation between species and strains in important population parameters remains largely undescribed. Here, we investigated the relationship between two commonly used measures in microbiology to estimate growth rate - cell density and cell count - in 23 strains across all eight Saccharomyces species . We found that the slope of this relationship significantly differs among species and a given optical density (OD) does not translate into the same number of cells across species. We provide a cell number calculator based on our OD measurements for each strain used in this study. Surprisingly, we found a slightly positive relationship between cell size and the slope of the cell density-cell count relationship. Our results show that the strain- and species-specificity of the cell density and cell count relationship should be taken into account, for instance when running competition experiments requiring equal starting population sizes or when estimating the fitness of strains with different genetic backgrounds in experimental evolution studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Javier Pinto
- Zoology Department, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Nik Tavakolian
- Department of Mathematics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Chun-Biu Li
- Department of Mathematics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Rike Stelkens
- Zoology Department, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Sweden
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Yang X, Li T, Liu Y, Gu Y, Li J, Wang C, Zhao L, Wang X, Li W, Sun Y, Cheng F, Zhu D. Bacillus sp. alone or combined with salicylic acid inhibited Trichoderma spp. infection on harvested white Hypsizygus marmoreus. Front Microbiol 2024; 15:1324833. [PMID: 38562481 PMCID: PMC10982393 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2024.1324833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/04/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction White Hypsizygus marmoreus is a popular edible mushroom. It is rich in nutrition and flavor but vulnerable to fungal disease, resulting in nutrient loss and aging. Methods In this study, the pathogenic fungus Trichoderma spp. BBP-6 and its antagonist Bacillus sp. 1-23 were isolated and identified. The negative effects caused by this pathogen were judged by detecting a series of changes in the infected white H. marmoreus. The effects of Bacillus sp. 1-23 on Trichoderma spp. BBP-6 and the infected white H. marmoreus were detected. The effect of Bacillus sp. 1-23 treatment combined with salicylic acid (SA) was also considered. Results The results showed that Trichoderma spp. BBP-6 could affect the activities of antioxidant enzymes PAL, POD, CAT, SOD, GR, PPO, and APX to interfere with the stability of the white H. marmoreus antioxidant enzyme system and cause the mushroom severe browning and nutrition loss, as well as general quality deterioration. Bacillus sp. 1-23 could produce chitinase and chitosanase enzymes to inhibit Trichoderma spp. BBP-6 directly. SA reinforced this inhibitory. Bacillus sp. 1-23 alone or combined with SA could help white H. marmoreus from the Trichoderma spp. BBP-6 infection to effectively maintain nutrients, restore and stabilize the antioxidant system, and reduce the production of malondialdehyde, superoxide anion and hydrogen peroxide. Discussion Thus, such treatments could be considered potential methods to alleviate damage from disease and extend the shelf life of white H. marmoreus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiuqing Yang
- College of Life Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Tianhao Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu Liu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Grassland Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yuyi Gu
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Grassland Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Jing Li
- College of Life Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Grassland Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Chaoping Wang
- Shandong Province Key Laboratory of Applied Mycology, Qingdao, China
| | - Longgang Zhao
- Shandong Technology Innovation Center of Special Food, Qingdao Special Food Research Institute, Qingdao, China
| | - Xiaofeng Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wenxiang Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Grassland Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- Shandong Academy of Grape, Jinan, China
| | - Yanan Sun
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
| | - Fansheng Cheng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- College of Grassland Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
- Shandong Academy of Grape, Jinan, China
| | - Dan Zhu
- College of Life Science, Qingdao Agricultural University, Qingdao, China
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Nakazawa T, Kawauchi M, Otsuka Y, Han J, Koshi D, Schiphof K, Ramírez L, Pisabarro AG, Honda Y. Pleurotus ostreatus as a model mushroom in genetics, cell biology, and material sciences. Appl Microbiol Biotechnol 2024; 108:217. [PMID: 38372792 PMCID: PMC10876731 DOI: 10.1007/s00253-024-13034-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2023] [Revised: 01/11/2024] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 02/20/2024]
Abstract
Pleurotus ostreatus, also known as the oyster mushroom, is a popular edible mushroom cultivated worldwide. This review aims to survey recent progress in the molecular genetics of this fungus and demonstrate its potential as a model mushroom for future research. The development of modern molecular genetic techniques and genome sequencing technologies has resulted in breakthroughs in mushroom science. With efficient transformation protocols and multiple selection markers, a powerful toolbox, including techniques such as gene knockout and genome editing, has been developed, and numerous new findings are accumulating in P. ostreatus. These include molecular mechanisms of wood component degradation, sexual development, protein secretion systems, and cell wall structure. Furthermore, these techniques enable the identification of new horizons in enzymology, biochemistry, cell biology, and material science through protein engineering, fluorescence microscopy, and molecular breeding. KEY POINTS: • Various genetic techniques are available in Pleurotus ostreatus. • P. ostreatus can be used as an alternative model mushroom in genetic analyses. • New frontiers in mushroom science are being developed using the fungus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Takehito Nakazawa
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Moriyuki Kawauchi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Yuitsu Otsuka
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Junxian Han
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Daishiro Koshi
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Kim Schiphof
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan
| | - Lucía Ramírez
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research in Applied Biology (IMAB), Public University of Navarra (UPNA), 31006, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Antonio G Pisabarro
- Institute for Multidisciplinary Research in Applied Biology (IMAB), Public University of Navarra (UPNA), 31006, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Yoichi Honda
- Graduate School of Agriculture, Kyoto University, Oiwake-Cho, Kitashirakawa, Sakyo-Ku, Kyoto, 606-8502, Japan.
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Salazar-Alekseyeva K, Herndl GJ, Baltar F. Influence of Salinity on the Extracellular Enzymatic Activities of Marine Pelagic Fungi. J Fungi (Basel) 2024; 10:152. [PMID: 38392824 PMCID: PMC10890631 DOI: 10.3390/jof10020152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/27/2023] [Revised: 12/13/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 02/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Even though fungi are ubiquitous in the biosphere, the ecological knowledge of marine fungi remains rather rudimentary. Also, little is known about their tolerance to salinity and how it influences their activities. Extracellular enzymatic activities (EEAs) are widely used to determine heterotrophic microbes' enzymatic capabilities and substrate preferences. Five marine fungal species belonging to the most abundant pelagic phyla (Ascomycota and Basidiomycota) were grown under non-saline and saline conditions (0 g/L and 35 g/L, respectively). Due to their sensitivity and specificity, fluorogenic substrate analogues were used to determine hydrolytic activity on carbohydrates (β-glucosidase, β-xylosidase, and N-acetyl-β-D-glucosaminidase); peptides (leucine aminopeptidase and trypsin); lipids (lipase); organic phosphorus (alkaline phosphatase), and sulfur compounds (sulfatase). Afterwards, kinetic parameters such as maximum velocity (Vmax) and half-saturation constant (Km) were calculated. All fungal species investigated cleaved these substrates, but some species were more efficient than others. Moreover, most enzymatic activities were reduced in the saline medium, with some exceptions like sulfatase. In non-saline conditions, the average Vmax ranged between 208.5 to 0.02 μmol/g biomass/h, and in saline conditions, 88.4 to 0.02 μmol/g biomass/h. The average Km ranged between 1553.2 and 0.02 μM with no clear influence of salinity. Taken together, our results highlight a potential tolerance of marine fungi to freshwater conditions and indicate that changes in salinity (due to freshwater input or evaporation) might impact their enzymatic activities spectrum and, therefore, their contribution to the oceanic elemental cycles.
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Affiliation(s)
- Katherine Salazar-Alekseyeva
- Bio-Oceanography and Marine Biology Unit, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Bioprocess Engineering Group, Department of Agrotechnology and Food Sciences, Wageningen University and Research, 6708 WG Wageningen, The Netherlands
| | - Gerhard J Herndl
- Bio-Oceanography and Marine Biology Unit, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
- Department of Marine Microbiology and Biogeochemistry, Royal Netherlands Institute for Sea Research (NIOZ), University of Utrecht, 1790 AB Texel, The Netherlands
| | - Federico Baltar
- Bio-Oceanography and Marine Biology Unit, Department of Functional and Evolutionary Ecology, University of Vienna, 1030 Vienna, Austria
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de Freitas STF, Faria G, Silva FG, Batista MA, Augusto DSS, Dyszy FH, Vitorino LC. The morphoanatomy of Serjania erecta Radlk (Sapindaceae) provides evidence of biotrophic interactions by endophytic fungi within leaves. PeerJ 2023; 11:e15980. [PMID: 37727689 PMCID: PMC10506578 DOI: 10.7717/peerj.15980] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/12/2023] [Accepted: 08/08/2023] [Indexed: 09/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The leaves of Serjania erecta Radlk (Sapindaceae) are renowned in ethnobotany for their medicinal properties and are significant as a medicinal resource for traditional Brazilian communities. As necrotic spots are common on these leaves, indicating interaction with phytopathogenic fungi, it was hypothesized that biotrophic fungal species colonize the leaf tissues of S. erecta. Methods To test this hypothesis, we employed standard techniques in plant anatomy, which enabled us to investigate the interaction of fungal structures with plant tissues and describe the morphoanatomical and histochemical characteristics of the epidermis and limbus of S. erecta. Results The anatomical analysis showed the existence of leaf teeth on the leaf tips. Additionally, hyphae, conidiospores, and spores of Bipolaris/Curvularia species were detected on the adaxial epidermis. Moreover, melanized microsclerotia were found in glandular areas of the leaf teeth and the phloem, providing evidence of biotrophic behavior. The hypothesis that biotrophic phytopathogenic fungi interact with S. erecta leaf tissues was confirmed, despite the presence of many bioactive compounds (such as flavonoids, alkaloids, and essential oils), as evidenced by histochemical analyses. The presence of tector, glandular, and scabiform trichomes on the leaf teeth and epidermis was also revealed. This study presents, for the first time, the synthesis of essential oils and alkaloids in the leaves of S. erecta. Additionally, it investigates previously unexplained aspects of the anatomy and histochemistry of the species, as well as its interaction with resident microorganisms. Therefore, it is recommended that future research focus on extracting and characterizing the oils and alkaloids of S. erecta, as well as exploring other aspects related to its microbiome and its relationship.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samylla Tássia Ferreira de Freitas
- Graduate Program in Agricultural Sciences, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
| | - Giselle Faria
- Graduate Program in Agricultural Sciences, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
| | - Fabiano Guimarães Silva
- Graduate Program in Agricultural Sciences, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
| | - Marco Aurélio Batista
- Graduate Program in Natural Resources of the Cerrado, Universidade Estadual de Goiás, Anápolis, Brazil
| | - Damiana Souza Santos Augusto
- Graduate Program in Agricultural Sciences, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
| | - Fábio Henrique Dyszy
- Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Conservation, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
| | - Luciana Cristina Vitorino
- Graduate Program in Biodiversity and Conservation, Instituto Federal de Educação, Ciência e Tecnologia Goiano (IF Goiano, Campus Rio Verde), Rio Verde, Brazil
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11
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Thakur D, Bairwa A, Dipta B, Jhilta P, Chauhan A. An overview of fungal chitinases and their potential applications. PROTOPLASMA 2023; 260:1031-1046. [PMID: 36752884 DOI: 10.1007/s00709-023-01839-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2022] [Accepted: 01/30/2023] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Chitin, the world's second most abundant biopolymer after cellulose, is composed of β-1,4-N-acetylglucosamine (GlcNAc) residues. It is the key structural component of many organisms, including crustaceans, mollusks, marine invertebrates, algae, fungi, insects, and nematodes. There has been a significant increase in the generation of chitinous waste from seafood businesses, resulting in a big amount of scrap. Although several organisms, such as plants, crustaceans, insects, nematodes, and animals, produce chitinases, microorganisms are promising candidates and a sustainable option that mediates chitin degradation. Fungi are the dominant group of chitinase producers among microorganisms. In fungi, chitinases are involved in morphogenesis, cell division, autolysis, chitin acquisition for nutritional purposes, and mycoparasitism. Many efficient chitinolytic fungi with potential applications have been identified in a variety of environments, including soil, water, marine wastes, and plants. The current review highlights the key sources of chitinolytic fungi and the characterization of fungal chitinases. It also discusses the applications of fungal chitinases and the cloning of fungal chitinase genes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deepali Thakur
- Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, 173230, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Aarti Bairwa
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, 171001, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Bhawna Dipta
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, 171001, Himachal Pradesh, India.
| | - Prakriti Jhilta
- Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, 173230, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Anjali Chauhan
- Dr. Yashwant Singh Parmar University of Horticulture and Forestry, Nauni, Solan, 173230, Himachal Pradesh, India
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12
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Comparative Transcriptomics of Fusarium graminearum and Magnaporthe oryzae Spore Germination Leading up To Infection. mBio 2023; 14:e0244222. [PMID: 36598191 PMCID: PMC9973345 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.02442-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
For fungal plant pathogens, the germinating spore provides the first interaction with the host. Spore germlings move across the plant surface and use diverse penetration strategies for ingress into plant surfaces. Penetration strategies include pressurized melanized appressoria, which facilitate physically punching through the plant cuticle, and nonmelanized appressoria, which penetrate with the help of enzymes or cuticular damage to breach the plant surface. Two well-studied plant pathogens, Fusarium graminearum and Magnaporthe oryzae, are typical of these two modes of penetration. We applied comparative transcriptomics to Fusarium graminearum and Magnaporthe oryzae to characterize the genetic programming of the early host-pathogen interface. Four sequential stages of development following spore localization on the plant surface, from spore swelling to appressorium formation, were sampled for each species on culture medium and on barley sheaths, and transcriptomic analyses were performed. Gene expression in the prepenetration stages in both species and under both conditions was similar. In contrast, gene expression in the final stage was strongly influenced by the environment. Appressorium formation involved the greatest number of differentially expressed genes. Laser-dissection microscopy was used to perform detailed transcriptomics of initial infection points by F. graminearum. These analyses revealed new and important aspects of early fungal ingress in this species. Expression of the trichothecene genes involved in biosynthesis of deoxynivalenol by F. graminearum implies that toxisomes are not fully functional until after penetration and indicates that deoxynivalenol is not essential for penetration under our conditions. The use of comparative gene expression of divergent fungi promises to advance highly effective targets for antifungal strategies. IMPORTANCE Fusarium graminearum and Magnaporthe oryzae are two of the most important pathogens of cereal grains worldwide. Despite years of research, strong host resistance has not been identified for F. graminearum, so other methods of control are essential. The pathogen takes advantage of multiple entry points to infect the host, including breaches in the florets due to senescence of flower parts and penetration of the weakened trichome bases to breach the epidermis. In contrast, M. oryzae directly punctures leaves that it infects, and resistant cultivars have been characterized. The threat of either pathogen causing a major disease outbreak is ever present. Comparative transcriptomics demonstrated its potential to reveal novel and effective disease prevention strategies that affect the initial stages of disease. Shedding light on the basis of this diversity of infection strategies will result in development of increasingly specific control strategies.
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Xiao Z, Zhao Q, Li W, Gao L, Liu G. Strain improvement of Trichoderma harzianum for enhanced biocontrol capacity: Strategies and prospects. Front Microbiol 2023; 14:1146210. [PMID: 37125207 PMCID: PMC10134904 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2023.1146210] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2023] [Accepted: 03/20/2023] [Indexed: 05/02/2023] Open
Abstract
In the control of plant diseases, biocontrol has the advantages of being efficient and safe for human health and the environment. The filamentous fungus Trichoderma harzianum and its closely related species can inhibit the growth of many phytopathogenic fungi, and have been developed as commercial biocontrol agents for decades. In this review, we summarize studies on T. harzianum species complex from the perspective of strain improvement. To elevate the biocontrol ability, the production of extracellular proteins and compounds with antimicrobial or plant immunity-eliciting activities need to be enhanced. In addition, resistance to various environmental stressors should be strengthened. Engineering the gene regulatory system has the potential to modulate a variety of biological processes related to biocontrol. With the rapidly developing technologies for fungal genetic engineering, T. harzianum strains with increased biocontrol activities are expected to be constructed to promote the sustainable development of agriculture.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ziyang Xiao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, China
| | - Qinqin Zhao
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wei Li
- Shanghai Tobacco Group Beijing Cigarette Factory Co., Ltd., Beijing, China
| | - Liwei Gao
- Tobacco Research Institute of Chinese Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Qingdao, China
- Liwei Gao,
| | - Guodong Liu
- State Key Laboratory of Microbial Technology, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
- *Correspondence: Guodong Liu,
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14
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Receptor for advanced glycation end-products (RAGE) mediates phagocytosis in nonprofessional phagocytes. Commun Biol 2022; 5:824. [PMID: 35974093 PMCID: PMC9381800 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-022-03791-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 08/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022] Open
Abstract
In mammals, both professional phagocytes and nonprofessional phagocytes (NPPs) can perform phagocytosis. However, limited targets are phagocytosed by NPPs, and thus, the mechanism remains unclear. We find that spores of the yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae are internalized efficiently by NPPs. Analyses of this phenomenon reveals that RNA fragments derived from cytosolic RNA species are attached to the spore wall, and these fragments serve as ligands to induce spore internalization. Furthermore, we show that a multiligand receptor, RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end-products), mediates phagocytosis in NPPs. RAGE-mediated phagocytosis is not uniquely induced by spores but is an intrinsic mechanism by which NPPs internalize macromolecules containing RAGE ligands. In fact, artificial particles labeled with polynucleotides, HMGB1, or histone (but not bovine serum albumin) are internalized in NPPs. Our findings provide insight into the molecular basis of phagocytosis by NPPs, a process by which a variety of macromolecules are targeted for internalization. The multiligand receptor RAGE (receptor for advanced glycation end-products) mediates phagocytosis in non-professional phagocytes (NPPs), for example through the use of RNA fragments as ligands for internalization.
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15
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Heinz J, Doellinger J, Maus D, Schneider A, Lasch P, Grossart HP, Schulze-Makuch D. Perchlorate-Specific Proteomic Stress Responses of Debaryomyces hansenii Could Enable Microbial Survival in Martian Brines. Environ Microbiol 2022; 24:5051-5065. [PMID: 35920032 DOI: 10.1111/1462-2920.16152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
If life exists on Mars, it would face several challenges including the presence of perchlorates, which destabilize biomacromolecules by inducing chaotropic stress. However, little is known about perchlorate toxicity for microorganism on the cellular level. Here we present the first proteomic investigation on the perchlorate-specific stress responses of the halotolerant yeast Debaryomyces hansenii and compare these to generally known salt stress adaptations. We found that the responses to NaCl and NaClO4 -induced stresses share many common metabolic features, e.g., signaling pathways, elevated energy metabolism, or osmolyte biosynthesis. Nevertheless, several new perchlorate-specific stress responses could be identified, such as protein glycosylation and cell wall remodulations, presumably in order to stabilize protein structures and the cell envelope. These stress responses would also be relevant for life on Mars, which - given the environmental conditions - likely developed chaotropic defense strategies such as stabilized confirmations of biomacromolecules and the formation of cell clusters. This article is protected by copyright. All rights reserved.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jacob Heinz
- Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics, RG Astrobiology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Joerg Doellinger
- Robert Koch-Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Proteomics and Spectroscopy (ZBS6), Berlin, Germany
| | - Deborah Maus
- Robert Koch-Institute, Metabolism of Microbial Pathogens (NG2), Berlin, Germany
| | - Andy Schneider
- Robert Koch-Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Proteomics and Spectroscopy (ZBS6), Berlin, Germany
| | - Peter Lasch
- Robert Koch-Institute, Centre for Biological Threats and Special Pathogens, Proteomics and Spectroscopy (ZBS6), Berlin, Germany
| | - Hans-Peter Grossart
- Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775 Stechlin, Germany.,Institute for Biochemistry and Biology, Potsdam University, Potsdam, Germany
| | - Dirk Schulze-Makuch
- Center for Astronomy and Astrophysics, RG Astrobiology, Technische Universität Berlin, Berlin, Germany.,Department of Plankton and Microbial Ecology, Leibniz-Institute of Freshwater Ecology and Inland Fisheries (IGB), 16775 Stechlin, Germany.,GFZ German Research Center for Geosciences, Section Geomicrobiology, Potsdam, Germany.,School of the Environment, Washington State University, Pullman, Washington, USA
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16
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Abstract
Cryptococcosis is a disease caused by the pathogenic fungi Cryptococcus neoformans and Cryptococcus gattii, both environmental fungi that cause severe pneumonia and may even lead to cryptococcal meningoencephalitis. Although C. neoformans affects more fragile individuals, such as immunocompromised hosts through opportunistic infections, C. gattii causes a serious indiscriminate primary infection in immunocompetent individuals. Typically seen in tropical and subtropical environments, C. gattii has increased its endemic area over recent years, largely due to climatic factors that favor contagion in warmer climates. It is important to point out that not only C. gattii, but the Cryptococcus species complex produces a polysaccharidic capsule with immunomodulatory properties, enabling the pathogenic species of Cryptococccus to subvert the host immune response during the establishment of cryptococcosis, facilitating its dissemination in the infected organism. C. gattii causes a more severe and difficult-to-treat infection, with few antifungals eliciting an effective response during chronic treatment. Much of the immunopathology of this cryptococcosis is still poorly understood, with most studies focusing on cryptococcosis caused by the species C. neoformans. C. gattii became more important in the epidemiological scenario with the outbreaks in the Pacific Northwest of the United States, which resulted in phylogenetic studies of the virulent variant responsible for the severe infection in the region. Since then, the study of cryptococcosis caused by C. gattii has helped researchers understand the immunopathological aspects of different variants of this pathogen.
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Zhang J, Xiao K, Li M, Hu H, Zhang X, Liu J, Pan H, Zhang Y. SsAGM1-Mediated Uridine Diphosphate-N-Acetylglucosamine Synthesis Is Essential for Development, Stress Response, and Pathogenicity of Sclerotinia sclerotiorum. Front Microbiol 2022; 13:938784. [PMID: 35814696 PMCID: PMC9260252 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2022.938784] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The necrotrophic fungus Sclerotinia sclerotiorum is a devastating pathogen. S. sclerotiorum can cause Sclerotinia stem rot in more than 600 species of plants, which results in serious economic losses every year. Chitin is one of the most important polysaccharides in fungal cell walls. Chitin and β-Glucan form a scaffold that wraps around the cell and determines the vegetative growth and pathogenicity of pathogens. UDP-GlcNAc is a direct precursor of chitin synthesis. During the synthesis of UDP-GlcNAc, the conversion of GlcNAc-6P to GlcNAc-1P that is catalyzed by AGM1 (N-acetylglucosamine-phosphate mutase) is a key step. However, the significance and role of AGM1 in phytopathogenic fungus are unclear. We identified a cytoplasm-localized SsAGM1 in S. sclerotiorum, which is homologous to AGM1 of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We utilized RNA interference (RNAi) and overexpression to characterize the function of SsAGM1 in S. sclerotiorum. After reducing the expression of SsAGM1, the contents of chitin and UDP-GlcNAc decreased significantly. Concomitantly, the gene-silenced transformants of SsAGM1 slowed vegetative growth and, importantly, lost the ability to produce sclerotia and infection cushion; it also lost virulence, even on wounded leaves. In addition, SsAGM1 was also involved in the response to osmotic stress and inhibitors of cell wall synthesis. Our results revealed the function of SsAGM1 in the growth, development, stress response, and pathogenicity in S. sclerotiorum.
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18
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Diniz-Lima I, da Fonseca LM, dos Reis JS, Rodrigues da Costa Santos MA, da Costa KM, do Nascimento Santos CA, Barcelos PM, Guimarães-Pinto K, Filardy AA, Freire-de-Lima ME, Decote-Ricardo D, Morrot A, Freire-de-Lima CG, Freire-de-Lima L. The Sweet Side of Fungal Infections: Structural Glycan Diversity and Its Importance for Pathogenic Adaptation. MEDICINES (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2022; 9:medicines9060037. [PMID: 35736250 PMCID: PMC9230512 DOI: 10.3390/medicines9060037] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 06/08/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Fungal infections are the most common secondary infections in debilitated individuals in a state of chronic disease or immunosuppression. Despite this, most fungal infections are neglected, mainly due to the lower frequency of their more severe clinical forms in immunocompetent individuals with a healthy background. However, over the past few years, several cases of severe fungal infections in healthy individuals have provoked a change in the epidemiological dynamics of fungal infections around the world, both due to recurrent outbreaks in previously infrequent regions and the greater emergence of more pathogenic fungal variants affecting healthy individuals, such as in the Cryptococcus genus. Therefore, before the arrival of a scenario of prevalent severe fungal infections, it is necessary to assess more carefully what are the real reasons for the increased incidence of fungal infection globally. What are the factors that are currently contributing to this new possible epidemiological dynamic? Could these be of a structural nature? Herein, we propose a discussion based on the importance of the virulence factors of glycoconjugate composition in the adaptation of pathogenic fungal species into the current scenario of increasing severity of these infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Israel Diniz-Lima
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Leonardo Marques da Fonseca
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Jhenifer Santos dos Reis
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Marcos André Rodrigues da Costa Santos
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Kelli Monteiro da Costa
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Carlos Antonio do Nascimento Santos
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Pedro Marçal Barcelos
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
| | - Kamila Guimarães-Pinto
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Goes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (K.G.-P.); (A.A.F.)
| | - Alessandra Almeida Filardy
- Instituto de Microbiologia Paulo de Goes, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (K.G.-P.); (A.A.F.)
| | - Marco Edilson Freire-de-Lima
- Instituto de Química, Departamento de Química Orgânica, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 23890-000, Brazil;
| | - Debora Decote-Ricardo
- Departamento de Microbiologia e Imunologia Veterinária, Instituto de Veterinária, Universidade Federal Rural do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 23890-000, Brazil;
| | - Alexandre Morrot
- Instituto Oswaldo Cruz, FIOCRUZ, Rio de Janeiro 21040-360, Brazil;
| | - Celio Geraldo Freire-de-Lima
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +55-21-3938-6646
| | - Leonardo Freire-de-Lima
- Instituto de Biofisica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-170, Brazil; (I.D.-L.); (L.M.d.F.); (J.S.d.R.); (M.A.R.d.C.S.); (K.M.d.C.); (C.A.d.N.S.); (P.M.B.); (L.F.-d.-L.)
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Homa M, Ibragimova S, Szebenyi C, Nagy G, Zsindely N, Bodai L, Vágvölgyi C, Nagy G, Papp T. Differential Gene Expression of Mucor lusitanicus under Aerobic and Anaerobic Conditions. J Fungi (Basel) 2022; 8:jof8040404. [PMID: 35448635 PMCID: PMC9031258 DOI: 10.3390/jof8040404] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/21/2022] [Revised: 04/12/2022] [Accepted: 04/14/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Mucor lusitanicus and some other members of the fungal order Mucorales display the phenomenon of morphological dimorphism. This means that these fungi aerobically produce filamentous hyphae, developing a coenocytic mycelium, but they grow in a multipolar yeast-like form under anaerobiosis. Revealing the molecular mechanism of the reversible yeast-hyphal transition can be interesting for both the biotechnological application and in the understanding of the pathomechanism of mucormycosis. In the present study, transcriptomic analyses were carried out after cultivating the fungus either aerobically or anaerobically revealing significant changes in gene expression under the two conditions. In total, 539 differentially expressed genes (FDR < 0.05, |log2FC| ≥ 3) were identified, including 190 upregulated and 349 downregulated transcripts. Within the metabolism-related genes, carbohydrate metabolism was proven to be especially affected. Anaerobiosis also affected the transcription of transporters: among the 14 up- and 42 downregulated transporters, several putative sugar transporters were detected. Moreover, a considerable number of transcripts related to amino acid transport and metabolism, lipid transport and metabolism, and energy production and conversion were proven to be downregulated when the culture had been transferred into an anaerobic atmosphere.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mónika Homa
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
| | - Sandugash Ibragimova
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
| | - Csilla Szebenyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
| | - Gábor Nagy
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (G.N.); (L.B.)
| | - Nóra Zsindely
- Department of Genetics, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary;
| | - László Bodai
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (G.N.); (L.B.)
| | - Csaba Vágvölgyi
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
| | - Gábor Nagy
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
| | - Tamás Papp
- Department of Microbiology, Faculty of Science and Informatics, University of Szeged, H-6726 Szeged, Hungary; (M.H.); (S.I.); (C.S.); (C.V.); (G.N.)
- Correspondence:
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20
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Yanyun C, Ying T, Wei K, Hua F, Haijun Z, Ping Z, Shunming X, Jian W. Preliminary Study on Antifungal Mechanism of Aqueous Extract of Cnidium monnieri Against Trichophyton rubrum. Front Microbiol 2021; 12:707174. [PMID: 34489895 PMCID: PMC8417377 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2021.707174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 07/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Trichoderma rubrum (T. rubrum) is one of the important pathogens because it is the cause of most dermatomycosis. The treatment of Trichophyton rubrum infection is time-consuming and very expensive; it is easy for the infections to reoccur, leading to therapeutic failures, persistence, and chronic infection. These issues have inspired researchers to study natural alternative therapies instead. Cnidium monnieri (L.), as a kind of traditional Chinese medicine, has a variety of pharmacological activities and a wide range of applications, so it has a high potential for researching and economic value. We detected the effect of aqueous extract of C. monnieri (L.) on the activity of T. rubrum by Cell Count Kit-8 assay (CCK-8), and we found that 128 and 256 μg/ml of aqueous extracts of C. monnieri (L.) co-cultured with T. rubrum for 24 h showed the inhibitory effect on T. rubrum. The results of scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) confirmed that aqueous extract of C. monnieri (L.) damaged the T. rubrum. At the same time, mass spectrometry screening with T. rubrum before and after the treatment of 256 μg/ml of aqueous extracts of C. monnieri (L.) showed that 966 differentially expressed proteins were detected, including 524 upregulated differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and 442 downregulated DEGs. The most significantly downregulated protein was chitin synthase (CHS); and the results of qRT-PCR and Western blotting demonstrated that the expression level of CHS was downregulated in the 256 μg/ml group compared with the control group. The study showed that the aqueous extract of C. monnieri (L.) could destroy the morphology of mycelia and the internal structure of T. rubrum, and it could inhibit the growth of T. rubrum. The antifungal effect of aqueous extract of C. monnieri (L.) may be related to the downregulation of the expression of CHS in T. rubrum, and CHS may be one of the potential targets of its antifungal mechanism. We concluded that aqueous extract from C. monnieri (L.) may be a potential candidate for antifungal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cao Yanyun
- Department of Dermatology, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Tang Ying
- Department of Dermatology, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Kong Wei
- Department of Dermatology, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Fang Hua
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zhu Haijun
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Pudong New Area People' s Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Zheng Ping
- Department of Clinical Laboratory, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Xu Shunming
- Department of Dermatology, Pudong New Area People's Hospital, Shanghai, China
| | - Wan Jian
- Department of Emergency and Critical Care Medicine, Pudong New Area People' s Hospital, Shanghai, China
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A Conserved Machinery Underlies the Synthesis of a Chitosan Layer in the Candida Chlamydospore Cell Wall. mSphere 2021; 6:6/2/e00080-21. [PMID: 33910989 PMCID: PMC8092133 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00080-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The polysaccharide chitosan is found in the cell wall of specific cell types in a variety of fungal species where it contributes to stress resistance, or in pathogenic fungi, virulence. Under certain growth conditions, the pathogenic yeast Candida dubliniensis forms a cell type termed a chlamydospore, which has an additional internal layer in its cell wall compared to hyphal or yeast cell types. We report that this internal layer of the chlamydospore wall is rich in chitosan. The ascospore wall of Saccharomyces cerevisiae also has a distinct chitosan layer. As in S. cerevisiae, formation of the chitosan layer in the C. dubliniensis wall requires the chitin synthase CHS3 and the chitin deacetylase CDA2 In addition, three lipid droplet-localized proteins-Rrt8, Srt1, and Mum3-identified in S. cerevisiae as important for chitosan layer assembly in the ascospore wall are required for the formation of the chitosan layer of the chlamydospore wall in C. dubliniensis These results reveal that a conserved machinery is required for the synthesis of a distinct chitosan layer in the walls of these two yeasts and may be generally important for incorporation of chitosan into fungal walls.IMPORTANCE The cell wall is the interface between the fungal cell and its environment and disruption of cell wall assembly is an effective strategy for antifungal therapies. Therefore, a detailed understanding of how cell walls form is critical to identify potential drug targets and develop therapeutic strategies. This study shows that a set of genes required for the assembly of a chitosan layer in the cell wall of S. cerevisiae is also necessary for chitosan formation in a different cell type in a different yeast, C. dubliniensis Because chitosan incorporation into the cell wall can be important for virulence, the conservation of this pathway suggests possible new targets for antifungals aimed at disrupting cell wall function.
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Abstract
The ability for cells to maintain homeostasis in the presence of extracellular stress is essential for their survival. Stress adaptations are especially important for microbial pathogens to respond to rapidly changing conditions, such as those encountered during the transition from the environment to the infected host. Many fungal pathogens have acquired the ability to quickly adapt to changes in extracellular pH to promote their survival in the various microenvironments encountered during a host infection. For example, the fungus-specific Rim/Pal alkaline response pathway has been well characterized in many fungal pathogens, including Cryptococcus neoformans However, alternative mechanisms for sensing and responding to host pH have yet to be extensively studied. Recent observations from a genetic screen suggest that the C. neoformans sterol homeostasis pathway is required for growth at elevated pH. This work explores interactions among mechanisms of membrane homeostasis, alkaline pH tolerance, and Rim pathway activation. We find that the sterol homeostasis pathway is necessary for growth in an alkaline environment and that an elevated pH is sufficient to induce Sre1 activation. This pH-mediated activation of the Sre1 transcription factor is linked to the biosynthesis of ergosterol but is not dependent on Rim pathway signaling, suggesting that these two pathways are responding to alkaline pH independently. Furthermore, we discover that C. neoformans is more susceptible to membrane-targeting antifungals under alkaline conditions, highlighting the impact of microenvironmental pH on the treatment of invasive fungal infections. Together, these findings further connect membrane integrity and composition with the fungal pH response and pathogenesis.IMPORTANCE The work described here further elucidates how microorganisms sense and adapt to changes in their environment to establish infections in the human host. Specifically, we uncover a novel mechanism by which an opportunistic human fungal pathogen, Cryptococcus neoformans, responds to increases in extracellular pH in order to survive and thrive within the relatively alkaline environment of the human lung. This mechanism, which is intimately linked with fungal membrane sterol homeostasis, is independent of the previously well-studied alkaline response Rim pathway. Furthermore, this ergosterol-dependent alkaline pH response is present in Candida albicans, indicating that this mechanism spans diverse fungal species. These results are also relevant for novel antimicrobial drug development as we show that currently used ergosterol-targeting antifungals are more active in alkaline environments.
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