Neural Processing of Acoustic Signals

Temporal integration of conflicting directional cues in sound localization

Sound localization is fundamental to hearing. In nature, sound degradation and noise erode directional cues and can generate conflicting directional perceptions across different subcomponents of sounds. Little is known about how sound localization is achieved in the face of conflicting directional cues in non-human animals, although this is relevant for many species in which sound localization in noisy conditions mediates mate finding or predator avoidance. We studied the effects of conflicting directional cues in male grasshoppers, Chorthippus biguttulus, which orient towards signaling females. We presented playbacks varying in the number and temporal position of song syllables providing directional cues in the form of either time or amplitude differences between two speakers. Males oriented towards the speaker broadcasting a greater number of leading or louder syllables. For a given number of syllables providing directional information, syllables with timing differences at the song's beginning were weighted most heavily, while syllables with intensity differences were weighted most heavily when they were in the middle of the song. When timing and intensity cues conflicted, the magnitude and temporal position of each cue determined their relative influence on lateralization, and males sometimes quickly corrected their directional responses. We discuss our findings with respect to similar results from humans.

Evolutionary diversification of the auditory organ sensilla in Neoconocephalus katydids (Orthoptera: Tettigoniidae) correlates with acoustic signal diversification over phylogenetic relatedness and life history

Neoconocephalus Tettigoniidae are a model for the evolution of acoustic signals as male calls have diversified in temporal structure during the radiation of the genus. The call divergence and phylogeny in Neoconocephalus are established, but in tettigoniids in general, accompanying evolutionary changes in hearing organs are not studied. We investigated anatomical changes of the tympanal hearing organs during the evolutionary radiation and divergence of intraspecific acoustic signals. We compared the neuroanatomy of auditory sensilla (crista acustica) from nine Neoconocephalus species for the number of auditory sensilla and the crista acustica length. These parameters were correlated with differences in temporal call features, body size, life histories and different phylogenetic positions. By this, adaptive responses to shifting frequencies of male calls and changes in their temporal patterns can be evaluated against phylogenetic constraints and allometry. All species showed well-developed auditory sensilla, on average 32-35 between species. Crista acustica length and sensillum numbers correlated with body size, but not with phylogenetic position or life history. Statistically significant correlations existed also with specific call patterns: a higher number of auditory sensilla occurred in species with continuous calls or slow pulse rates, and a longer crista acustica occurred in species with double pulses or slow pulse rates. The auditory sensilla show significant differences between species despite their recent radiation, and morphological and ecological similarities. This indicates the responses to natural and sexual selection, including divergence of temporal and spectral signal properties. Phylogenetic constraints are unlikely to limit these changes of the auditory systems.

From microseconds to seconds and minutes-time computation in insect hearing

The computation of time in the auditory system of insects is of relevance at rather different time scales, covering a large range from microseconds to several minutes. At the one end of this range, only a few microseconds of interaural time differences are available for directional hearing, due to the small distance between the ears, usually considered too small to be processed reliably by simple nervous systems. Synapses of interneurons in the afferent auditory pathway are, however, very sensitive to a time difference of only 1–2 ms provided by the latency shift of afferent activity with changing sound direction. At a much larger time scale of several tens of milliseconds to seconds, time processing is important in the context species recognition, but also for those insects where males produce acoustic signals within choruses, and the temporal relationship between song elements strongly deviates from a random distribution. In these situations, some species exhibit a more or less strict phase relationship of song elements, based on phase response properties of their song oscillator. Here we review evidence on how this may influence mate choice decisions. In the same dimension of some tens of milliseconds we find species of katydids with a duetting communication scheme, where one sex only performs phonotaxis to the other sex if the acoustic response falls within a very short time window after its own call. Such time windows show some features unique to insects, and although its neuronal implementation is unknown so far, the similarity with time processing for target range detection in bat echolocation will be discussed. Finally, the time scale being processed must be extended into the range of many minutes, since some acoustic insects produce singing bouts lasting quite long, and female preferences may be based on total signaling time.

Selective phonotaxis of female crickets under natural outdoor conditions

Acoustic mate choice in insects has been extensively studied under laboratory conditions, using different behavioural paradigms. Ideally, however, mate choice designs should reflect natural conditions, including the physical properties of the transmission channel for the signal. Since little is known about the discrimination ability of females between male song variants under natural conditions, we performed phonotaxis experiments with female field crickets (Gryllus bimaculatus) outdoors, using two-choice decisions based on differences in carrier frequency, sound pressure level, and chirp rate. For all three song parameters, minimum differences necessary for a significant preference between two song models were considerably larger outdoors compared to laboratory conditions. A minimum amplitude difference of 5 dB was required for a significant choice in the field, compared to only 1-2 dB reported for lab-based experiments. Due to the tuned receiver system, differences in carrier frequency equal differences in perceived loudness, and the results on choice for differences in carrier frequency corroborate those in amplitude. Similarly, chirp rate differences of 50 chirps/min were required outdoors compared to only 20 chirps/min in the lab. For predictions about patterns of sexual selection, future studies need to consider the different outcomes of mate choice decisions in lab and field trials.

High background noise shapes selective auditory filters in a tropical cricket

Because of call frequency overlap and masking interference, the airborne sound channel represents a limited resource for communication in a species-rich cricket community like the tropical rainforest. Here we studied the frequency tuning of an auditory neuron mediating phonotaxis in the rainforest cricket Paroecanthus podagrosus, suffering from strong competition, in comparison with the same homologous neuron in two species of European field crickets, where such competition does not exist. As predicted, the rainforest species exhibited a more selective tuning compared with the European counterparts. The filter reduced background nocturnal noise levels by 26 dB, compared with only 16 and 10 dB in the two European species. We also quantified the performance of the sensory filter under the different filter regimes by examining the representation of the species-specific amplitude modulation of the male calling song, when embedded in background noise. Again, the filter of the rainforest cricket performed significantly better in terms of representing this important signal parameter. The neuronal representation of the calling song pattern within receivers was maintained for a wide range of signal-to-noise ratios because of the more sharply tuned sensory system and selective attention mechanisms. Finally, the rainforest cricket also showed an almost perfect match between the filter for sensitivity and the peripheral filter for directional hearing, in contrast to its European counterparts. We discuss the consequences of these adaptations for intraspecific acoustic communication and reproductive isolation between species.

Binaural processing by the gecko auditory periphery

Lizards have highly directional ears, owing to strong acoustical coupling of the eardrums and almost perfect sound transmission from the contralateral ear. To investigate the neural processing of this remarkable tympanic directionality, we combined biophysical measurements of eardrum motion in the Tokay gecko with neurophysiological recordings from the auditory nerve. Laser vibrometry shows that their ear is a two-input system with approximately unity interaural transmission gain at the peak frequency (∼ 1.6 kHz). Median interaural delays are 260 μs, almost three times larger than predicted from gecko head size, suggesting interaural transmission may be boosted by resonances in the large, open mouth cavity (Vossen et al. 2010). Auditory nerve recordings are sensitive to both interaural time differences (ITD) and interaural level differences (ILD), reflecting the acoustical interactions of direct and indirect sound components at the eardrum. Best ITD and click delays match interaural transmission delays, with a range of 200-500 μs. Inserting a mold in the mouth cavity blocks ITD and ILD sensitivity. Thus the neural response accurately reflects tympanic directionality, and most neurons in the auditory pathway should be directional.

Effects of heterospecific and conspecific vibrational signal overlap and signal-to-noise ratio on male responsiveness in Nezara viridula (L.)

Animals often communicate in environments with high levels of biotic noise that arises from the signals of other individuals. Although effects of background biotic noise on mate recognition and discrimination have been widely studied in air-born sound communication, little is known about incidental interference between signallers that use substrate-borne vibrational signals. In this study we investigated the ability of males of the southern green stink bug Nezara viridula (L.) (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae) to recognize conspecific female song in the presence of biotic noise originating from conspecific and heterospecific vibrational signals. We tested male responsiveness on a bean plant in playback experiments. One leaf was vibrated with conspecific female song, while to the other one we simultaneously applied either heterospecific female signal or various altered conspecific signals with different temporal parameters. We tested males in three levels of biotic noise, ranging from +6 dB to –6 dB and we compared male responsiveness in each treatment with response obtained in unilateral treatment with unaltered conspecific female calling song. Male responsiveness was reduced in the presence of heterospecific signals or when background noise from conspecific signals obscured the species-specific temporal pattern of conspecific female song. By contrast, the presence of two sources of conspecific female songs had a positive effect on male responsiveness, for as long as the signal repetition rate of perceived song did not differ from the species-specific value. In the presence of interfering background signals, searching activity was less affected than male signalling. Increased signal-to-noise ratio restored male responsiveness to the level expressed in unilateral stimulation with conspecific female song. The results are discussed with regard to male behavioural strategies for vibrational communication in a noisy environment.

Release from bats: genetic distance and sensoribehavioural regression in the Pacific field cricket, Teleogryllus oceanicus

The auditory thresholds of the AN2 interneuron and the behavioural thresholds of the anti-bat flight-steering responses that this cell evokes are less sensitive in female Pacific field crickets that live where bats have never existed (Moorea) compared with individuals subjected to intense levels of bat predation (Australia). In contrast, the sensitivity of the auditory interneuron, ON1 which participates in the processing of both social signals and bat calls, and the thresholds for flight orientation to a model of the calling song of male crickets show few differences between the two populations. Genetic analyses confirm that the two populations are significantly distinct, and we conclude that the absence of bats has caused partial regression in the nervous control of a defensive behaviour in this insect. This study represents the first examination of natural evolutionary regression in the neural basis of a behaviour along a selection gradient within a single species.

Predicting acoustic orientation in complex real-world environments

Animals have to accomplish several tasks in their lifetime, such as finding food and mates and avoiding predators. Animals that locate these using sound need to detect, recognize and localize appropriate acoustic objects in their environment, typically in noisy, non-ideal conditions. Quantitative models attempting to explain or predict animal behaviour should be able to accurately simulate behaviour in such complex, real-world conditions. Female crickets locate potential mates in choruses of simultaneously calling males. In the present study, we have tested field cricket acoustic orientation behaviour in complex acoustic conditions in the field and also successfully predicted female orientation and paths under these conditions using a simulation model based on auditory physiology. Such simulation models can provide powerful tools to predict and dissect patterns of behaviour in complex, natural environments.

Neuroethology of female preference in the synchronously singing bushcricket Mecopoda elongata (Tettigoniidae; Orthoptera): why do followers call at all?

Imperfect synchrony between male calls occurs in the acoustically interacting bushcricket Mecopoda elongata, and males establishing the temporal leadership attract more females in choice experiments. An asymmetrical representation of leader and follower signals in pairs of direction-selective neurons of the auditory pathway was suggested to represent the neural basis for the preference of females. We investigated the time-intensity trading effect, which occurs when the temporal advantage of the leader signal is compensated, and can be reversed, by an additional sound pressure level of the follower. In behavioural arena trials the intensity trading of the preference of females for leader signals depends on the playback level; a higher sound pressure level (SPL) is needed for compensation at higher playback levels. We studied the simultaneous neuronal representation of leader and follower signals, and the time-intensity trading function in the pair of omega-neurons in the CNS. Consistent with the behavioural data, the representation of leader and follower signals can be reversed with an additional loudness of the follower, and the steepness of the trading function depends on the playback level. We also implemented data on the neuronal representation of synchronized signals in individual receivers into computer-based agents, which performed phonotaxis in a virtual sound field. Results of these simulations closely resemble those obtained from real females with respect to the overall preference under the various time-intensity trading conditions. Furthermore, in combination with the observed trading functions these simulations demonstrate, that under more realistic field conditions the ultimate success of followers in attracting females is much higher than suggested from arena trials. We discuss the evolutionary consequences for male calling strategies in synchronously calling Orthoptera.

Efficient inhibition of bursts by bursts in the auditory system of crickets

In crickets, auditory information about ultrasound is carried bilaterally to the brain by the AN2 neurons. The ON1 neuron provides contralateral inhibitory input to AN2, thereby enhancing bilateral contrast between the left and right AN2s, an important cue for sound localization. We examine how the structures of the spike trains of these neurons affect this inhibitory interaction. As previously shown for AN2, ON1 responds to salient peaks in stimulus amplitude with bursts of spikes. Spike bursts, but not isolated spikes, reliably signal the occurrence of specific features of the stimulus. ON1 and AN2 burst at similar times relative to the amplitude envelope of the stimulus, and bursts are more tightly time-locked to stimulus feature than the isolated spikes. As a consequence, spikes that, in the absence of contralateral inhibition, would occur within AN2 bursts are more likely to be preceded by spikes in ON1 (mainly also in bursts) than are isolated AN2 spikes. This leads to a large decrease in the burst rate of the inhibited AN2. We conclude that the match in coding properties of ON1 and AN2 allows contralateral inhibition to be most efficient for those portions of the response that carry the behaviourally relevant information, i.e. for bursts.

Comprehensive classification of the auditory sensory projections in the brain of the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster

We established a comprehensive projection map of the auditory receptor cells (Johnston's organ neurons: JONs) from the antennae to the primary auditory center of the Drosophila brain. We found 477 +/- 24 cell bodies of JONs, which are arranged like a "bottomless bowl" within the auditory organ. The target of the JONs in the brain comprises five spatially segregated zones, each of which is contributed by bundles of JON axons that gradually branch out from the antennal nerve. Four zones are confined in the antennal mechanosensory and motor center, whereas one zone further extends over parts of the ventrolateral protocerebrum and the subesophageal ganglion. Single-cell labeling with the FLP-out technique revealed that most JONs innervate only a single zone, indicating that JONs can be categorized into five groups according to their target zones. Within each zone, JONs innervate various combinations of subareas. We classified these five zones into 19 subareas according to the branching patterns and terminal distributions of single JON axons. The groups of JONs that innervate particular zones or subareas of the primary auditory center have their cell bodies in characteristic locations of the Johnston's organ in the antenna, e.g., in concentric rings or in paired clusters. Such structural organization suggests that each JON group, and hence each zone of the primary auditory center, might sense different aspects of sensory signals.

Synaptic ultrastructure of Drosophila Johnston's organ axon terminals as revealed by an enhancer trap

The role of auditory circuitry is to decipher relevant information from acoustic signals. Acoustic parameters used by different insect species vary widely. All these auditory systems, however, share a common transducer: tympanal organs as well as the Drosophila flagellar ears use chordotonal organs as the auditory mechanoreceptors. We here describe the central neural projections of the Drosophila Johnston's organ (JO). These neurons, which represent the antennal auditory organ, terminate in the antennomechanosensory center. To ensure correct identification of these terminals we made use of a beta-galactosidase-expressing transgene that labels JO neurons specifically. Analysis of these projection pathways shows that parallel JO fibers display extensive contacts, including putative gap junctions. We find that the synaptic boutons show both chemical synaptic structures as well as putative gap junctions, indicating mixed synapses, and belong largely to the divergent type, with multiple small postsynaptic processes. The ultrastructure of JO fibers and synapses may indicate an ability to process temporally discretized acoustic information.

Auditory lateralization in bushcrickets: a new dichotic paradigm

Pair formation in the bushcricket Gampsocleis gratiosa is achieved through acoustic signalling by the male and phonotactic approaches of the female towards the calling song. On a walking belt in the free sound field, females tracked the position of the speaker broadcasting the male calling song with a remarkable precision, deviating by no more than 10 cm in either direction from the ideal course. Starting with stimulus angles of 6-10 degrees the females significantly turned to the correct side, and with stimulus angles greater than 25 degrees no incorrect turns were made. Using neurophysiological data on the directionality of the ear we calculated that with such stimulus angles the available binaural intensity difference is in the order of 1-2 dB. We developed a dichotic ear stimulation device for freely moving females with a cross-talk barrier of about 50 dB, which allowed to precisely apply small binaural intensity differences. In such a dichotic stimulation paradigm, females on average turned to the tronger stimulated side starting with a 1 dB difference between both ears. The significance of such a reliable lateralization behaviour with small interaural intensity differences for phonotactic behaviour under natural conditions is discussed.

Sensory ecology of predator-prey interactions: responses of the AN2 interneuron in the field cricket, Teleogryllus oceanicus to the echolocation calls of sympatric bats

We observed the responses of the AN2 interneuron in the Pacific field cricket, Teleogryllus oceanicus, a cell implicated in eliciting avoidance flight away from bats, to acoustic stimuli representing the echolocation calls of bats as well as field recordings of search and gleaning attack calls of six species of insectivorous sympatric bats (West Australia, Australia: Tadarida australis, Chalinolobus goudii, Nyctophilus geoffroyi; Queensland, Australia: Vespadelus pumilus, Myotis adversus; Kaua'i, Hawai'i: Lasiurus cinereus). The broad frequency sensitivity of the AN2 cell indicates that T. oceanicus has evolved to detect a wide range of echolocation call frequencies. The reduced sensitivity of this cell at frequencies higher than 70 kHz suggests that some bats (e.g., the gleaning species, N. geoffroyi) may circumvent this insect's auditory defences by using frequency-mismatched (allotonic) calls. The calls of the freetail bat, T. australis evoked the strongest response in the AN2 cell but, ironically, this may allow this bat to prey upon T. oceanicus as previous studies report that under certain conditions, flying crickets exhibit ambiguous directional responses towards frequencies similar to those emitted by this bat. Short duration calls (1--2 ms) are sufficient to evoke AN2 responses with instantaneous spike periods capable of causing defensive flight behaviours; most bats tested emit calls of durations greater than this. The short calls of N. geoffroyi produced during gleaning attacks may reduce this species' acoustic conspicuousness to this cricket.

Mechanisms underlying phonotactic steering in the cricket Gryllus bimaculatus revealed with a fast trackball system

Phonotactic steering behaviour of the cricket G. bimaculatus was analysed with a new highly sensitive trackball system providing a spatial and temporal resolution of 127 microm and 0.3 ms, respectively. Orientation to artificial calling songs started at 45 dB SPL, it increased up to 75 dB SPL and then saturated. When exposed to two identical patterns of different intensity, crickets significantly steered towards the louder sound pattern, whenever the intensity difference was greater than 1 dB. Bilateral latency differences in sound presentation did not always cause clear orientation towards the leading side. The overall walking direction depended on the number of sound pulses perceived from the left or right side with the animals turning towards the side providing the larger number of pulses. The recordings demonstrated rapid changes in walking direction performed even during a chirp. These rapid steering responses occurred with a latency of 55-60 ms, well before the central nervous system had time to evaluate the temporal structure of a whole chirp. When every other sound pulse was presented from opposite directions, the crickets followed the temporal pattern of sound presentation and rapidly steered towards the left and right side. Steering towards individual sound pulses does not agree with the proposal that crickets analyse the quality of sound patterns and then steer towards the better pattern. Rather, these experiments suggest that fast steering to single sound pulses determines the lateral deviation of the animals and that complex auditory orientation emerges from this simple mechanism of auditory steering.

Temporal and directional processing by an identified interneuron, ON1, compared in cricket species that sing with different tempos

We compare the temporal and directional processing properties of an identified auditory interneuron, ON1, between species with calling songs containing relatively low and high pulse rates (Teleogryllus oceanicus and Gryllus texensis, respectively). Using information theory, we find that the ON1 of G. texensis encodes higher amplitude-modulation frequencies than that of T. oceanicus. Bilateral differences in ON1 responses are also more pronounced in G. texensis, particularly for rapid, G. texensis-like stimuli. We show that brief silent intervals in a pulse train, such as those that occur in the natural calling song of G. texensis, enhance the representation of the stimulus pulse pattern as well as bilateral differences in activity. Our results suggest that the characteristics of an identified neuron vary, across cricket species, in accordance with the temporal structures of their communication signals.

Temporal pattern recognition based on instantaneous spike rate coding in a simple auditory system

Auditory pattern recognition by the CNS is a fundamental process in acoustic communication. Because crickets communicate with stereotyped patterns of constant frequency syllables, they are established models to investigate the neuronal mechanisms of auditory pattern recognition. Here we provide evidence that for the neural processing of amplitude-modulated sounds, the instantaneous spike rate rather than the time-averaged neural activity is the appropriate coding principle by comparing both coding parameters in a thoracic interneuron (Omega neuron ON1) of the cricket (Gryllus bimaculatus) auditory system. When stimulated with different temporal sound patterns, the analysis of the instantaneous spike rate demonstrates that the neuron acts as a low-pass filter for syllable patterns. The instantaneous spike rate is low at high syllable rates, but prominent peaks in the instantaneous spike rate are generated as the syllable rate resembles that of the species-specific pattern. The occurrence and repetition rate of these peaks in the neuronal discharge are sufficient to explain temporal filtering in the cricket auditory pathway as they closely match the tuning of phonotactic behavior to different sound patterns. Thus temporal filtering or "pattern recognition" occurs at an early stage in the auditory pathway.

The structure and function of auditory chordotonal organs in insects

Insects are capable of detecting a broad range of acoustic signals transmitted through air, water, or solids. Auditory sensory organs are morphologically diverse with respect to their body location, accessory structures, and number of sensilla, but remarkably uniform in that most are innervated by chordotonal organs. Chordotonal organs are structurally complex Type I mechanoreceptors that are distributed throughout the insect body and function to detect a wide range of mechanical stimuli, from gross motor movements to air-borne sounds. At present, little is known about how chordotonal organs in general function to convert mechanical stimuli to nerve impulses, and our limited understanding of this process represents one of the major challenges to the study of insect auditory systems today. This report reviews the literature on chordotonal organs innervating insect ears, with the broad intention of uncovering some common structural specializations of peripheral auditory systems, and identifying new avenues for research. A general overview of chordotonal organ ultrastructure is presented, followed by a summary of the current theories on mechanical coupling and transduction in monodynal, mononematic, Type 1 scolopidia, which characteristically innervate insect ears. Auditory organs of different insect taxa are reviewed, focusing primarily on tympanal organs, and with some consideration to Johnston's and subgenual organs. It is widely accepted that insect hearing organs evolved from pre-existing proprioceptive chordotonal organs. In addition to certain non-neural adaptations for hearing, such as tracheal expansion and cuticular thinning, the chordotonal organs themselves may have intrinsic specializations for sound reception and transduction, and these are discussed. In the future, an integrated approach, using traditional anatomical and physiological techniques in combination with new methodologies in immunohistochemistry, genetics, and biophysics, will assist in refining hypotheses on how chordotonal organs function, and, ultimately, lead to new insights into the peripheral mechanisms underlying hearing in insects.

New neural circuits for robot phonotaxis

W. Grey Walter built robotic systems to improve understanding of biological systems. In that tradition, this paper reports ongoing work on a robot model of cricket sound localization. The main advances are the inclusion of a much larger range of neuroethological detail, and the investigation of multimodal influences on the behaviour. The former allows exploration of the functionality of identified neurons in the insect, including the possible roles of multiple sensory fibres, mutually inhibitory connections, and brain neurons with pattern-filtering properties. The latter focuses on the inclusion of an optomotor stabilization response, and how this might improve tracking, particularly under conditions of random disturbance.

Robots in invertebrate neuroscience

Can we now build artificial animals? A combination of robot technology and neuroethological knowledge is enabling the development of realistic physical models of biological systems. And such systems are not only of interest to engineers. By exploring identified neural control circuits in the appropriate functional and environmental context, new insights are also provided to biologists.

Contralateral inhibition as a sensory bias: the neural basis for a female preference in a synchronously calling bushcricket, Mecopoda elongata

Imperfect synchrony between male calls occurs widely in acoustically courting crickets and bushcrickets. Males which are able to establish the temporal leadership usually attract more females in choice experiments but the proximate mechanism for this precedence effect is unknown. Here we show that contralateral inhibition, the neural basis for lateral contrast enhancement in the auditory pathways of insects and vertebrates, is also the probable proximate neural mechanism for this female preference. We recorded simultaneously from a pair of identified auditory interneurons in the synchronizing bushcricket Mecopoda elongata. When two identical acoustic stimuli are presented from opposite directions, one preceding the other by 120 ms, the neural representation within the receiver is far stronger for the leader signal. This results from a suppression of the neural response to the follower chirp by reciprocal contralateral inhibition. The advantage of the representation of the leader is 2-3-fold with time delays between 70 and 130 ms; the most clear-cut female preferences have also been found with such delays in previous behavioural experiments. In time-intensity trading experiments, a lead by 120 ms could only be compensated for by increasing the amplitude of the follower signal by 7-11 dB. We discuss contralateral inhibition in auditory systems as a sensory bias that results in female preference for leading signals, with important evolutionary consequences for male calling strategies.

Structure, development, and evolution of insect auditory systems

This paper provides an overview of insect peripheral auditory systems focusing on tympanate ears (pressure detectors) and emphasizing research during the last 15 years. The theme throughout is the evolution of hearing in insects. Ears have appeared independently no fewer than 19 times in the class Insecta and are located on various thoracic and abdominal body segments, on legs, on wings, and on mouth parts. All have fundamentally similar structures-a tympanum backed by a tracheal sac and a tympanal chordotonal organ-though they vary widely in size, ancillary structures, and number of chordotonal sensilla. Novel ears have recently been discovered in praying mantids, two families of beetles, and two families of flies. The tachinid flies are especially notable because they use a previously unknown mechanism for sound localization. Developmental and comparative studies have identified the evolutionary precursors of the tympanal chordotonal organs in several insects; they are uniformly chordotonal proprioceptors. Tympanate species fall into clusters determined by which of the embryologically defined chordotonal organ groups in each body segment served as precursor for the tympanal organ. This suggests that the many appearances of hearing could arise from changes in a small number of developmental modules. The nature of those developmental changes that lead to a functional insect ear is not yet known.