Hymenoptera venom proteins

Therapeutic Use of Bee Venom and Potential Applications in Veterinary Medicine

Apitherapy is a branch of alternative medicine that consists of the treatment of diseases through products collected, processed, and secreted by bees, specifically pollen, propolis, honey, royal jelly, and bee venom. In traditional medicine, the virtues of honey and propolis have been well-known for centuries. The same, however, cannot be said for venom. The use of bee venom is particularly relevant for many therapeutic aspects. In recent decades, scientific studies have confirmed and enabled us to understand its properties. Bee venom has anti-inflammatory, antioxidant, central nervous system inhibiting, radioprotective, antibacterial, antiviral, and antifungal properties, among others. Numerous studies have often been summarised in reviews of the scientific literature that have focused on the results obtained with mouse models and their subsequent transposition to the human patient. In contrast, few reviews of scientific work on the use of bee venom in veterinary medicine exist. This review aims to take stock of the research achievements in this particular discipline, with a view to a recapitulation and stabilisation in the different research fields.

Global View on Ant Venom Allergy: from Allergenic Components to Clinical Management

Hymenoptera venom allergy is characterised by systemic anaphylactic reactions that occur in response to stings from members of the Hymenoptera order. Stinging by social Hymenoptera such as ants, honeybees, and vespids is one of the 3 major causes of anaphylaxis; along with food and drug exposure, it accounts for up to 43% of anaphylaxis cases and 20% of anaphylaxis-related fatalities. Despite their recognition as being of considerable public health significance, stinging ant venoms are relatively unexplored in comparison to other animal venoms and may be overlooked as a cause of venom allergy. Indeed, the venoms of stinging ants may be the most common cause of anaphylaxis in ant endemic areas. A better understanding of the natural history of venom allergy caused by stinging ants, their venom components, and the management of ant venom allergy is therefore required. This article provides a global view on allergic reactions to the venoms of stinging ants and the contemporary approach to diagnose and manage ant venom allergy.

Immunology of Bee Venom

Bee venom is a blend of biochemicals ranging from small peptides and enzymes to biogenic amines. It is capable of triggering severe immunologic reactions owing to its allergenic fraction. Venom components are presented to the T cells by antigen-presenting cells within the skin. These Th2 type T cells then release IL-4 and IL-13 which subsequently direct B cells to class switch to production of IgE. Generating venom-specific IgE and crosslinking FcεR1(s) on the surface of mast cells complete the sensitizing stage in allergic individuals who are most likely to experience severe and even fatal allergic reactions after being stung. Specific IgE for bee venom is a double-edged sword as it is a powerful mediator in triggering allergic events but is also applied successfully in diagnosis of the venom allergic patient. The healing capacity of bee venom has been rediscovered under laboratory-controlled conditions using animal models and cell cultures. The potential role of enzymatic fraction of bee venom including phospholipase A2 in the initiation and development of immune responses also has been studied in numerous research settings. Undoubtedly, having insights into immunologic interactions between bee venom components and innate/specific immune cells both locally and systematically will contribute to the development of immunologic strategies in specific and epitope-based immunotherapy especially in individuals with Hymenoptera venom allergy.

Antioxidant bioactivity of Samsum ant (Pachycondyla sennaarensis) venom protects against CCL₄-induced nephrotoxicity in mice

To assess whether SAV could influence the effects of carbon tetrachloride (CCL4) exposure, mice were treated with SAV in doses of 100, 200, 300 and 400  μg/kg body weight and the effects on oxidative status and kidney function were studied. Serum levels of creatinine, malondialdehyde (MDA), and blood urea, together with renal and hepatic levels of MDA, glutathione (GSH), superoxide dismutase (SOD), and catalase (CAT) were quantified in order to evaluate antioxidant activity. Results showed that the group injected with CCL4 exhibited significantly higher levels of oxidative stress markers, MDA, and significantly lower concentrations of GSH, SOD and catalase. SAV was found to significantly improve these oxidative markers, occasionally, in a dose-dependent manner. Furthermore, treatment with SAV was associated with the same behaviour in respect to kidney functions which had previously been impaired by CCL4. Histopathological examination demonstrated that SAV, in different groups, improved the renal tissue damage induced by CCL4 and histological scores confirmed that significant improvements were obtained after treatment with SAV, particularly with the lowest dose (100  μg/kg body weight). In conclusion, SAV has the potential capability to restore oxidative stability and to improve kidney functions after CCL4 acute injury.

Delayed onset interstitial nephritis following multiple wasp stings

A wasp sting rarely causes delayed / late onset hypersensitivity reaction. Although unknown, the mechanism of such a delayed hypersensitivity reaction is thought to be an immunologically mediated, type III hypersensitivity reaction with the deposition of immune complexes and activation of the complement system. We present here the case of a seven year-old girl with acute interstitial nephritis following multiple wasp stings. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first such report of delayed presentation in a child from India.

Differences in venom and cuticular peptides in individuals of Apis mellifera (Hymenoptera: Apidae) determined by MALDI-TOF MS

The fraction between 950 and 4000Da of the venom of Apis mellifera has been analyzed with MALDI-TOF mass spectrometry and statistical facilities of the ClinProTools software. Consistent differences in the composition of this venom fraction were observed between queens and workers while younger and older workers (nurses and guards as well as foragers) differ for the relative percentages of two well known cytolytic peptides, namely Melittin and Apamin. Total in situ body methanol extracts and methanol micro-extractions on the cuticle of various parts of the body of drones and females confirmed that venom peptides are smeared on the body surface of females in a not yet clarified way. The observation that venom peptides have been found also on comb wax rises the hypothesis that the use of venom as antimicrobial agent makes part of the social immunity system of A. mellifera.

The neurotoxicological effects of mastoparan Polybia-MPII at the murine neuromuscular junction: an ultrastructural and immunocytochemical study

Polybia-MPII (INWLKLGKMVIDAL-NH2), a mastoparan isolated from the crude venom of the swarming wasp Polybia paulista, was injected into the left hind limb of Swiss white mice. Between 3 h and 21 days later the mice were killed and the soleus muscles from both hind limbs were removed. Sections of the muscles were made for transmission electron microscopy and immunocytochemistry. Transmission electron microscopy showed that both the volume fraction occupied by synaptic vesicles and synaptic vesicle density was greatly reduced after exposure to Polybia-MPII, although there was no significant structural damage to the plasma membrane of the terminal boutons and mitochondria were indistinguishable from those in normal, control boutons. Immunocytochemistry revealed that in control muscles 99% of motor end plates identified by the positive labelling of acetylcholine receptors by TRITC-alpha-bungarotoxin co-labelled with anti-synaptophysin antibody, but this figure fell by 30% in muscles exposed to the toxin. These changes were transient. They were maximal at 6 h and fully reversed by 3 days. At no time was axonal labelling with anti-neurofilament antibodies affected by exposure to Polybia-MPII. We conclude that mastoparan Polybia-MPII is a minor neurotoxin and suggest that its neurotoxic activity is unlikely to be of clinical significance.

Identification of three novel peptides isolated from the venom of the neotropical social waspPolistes major major

Three novel peptides designated as PMM1, PMM2, and PMM3 were isolated and characterized from the venom of the social wasp Polistes major major, one of the most common wasps in the Dominican Republic. By Edman degradation, and MALDI-TOF and ESI-QTOF mass spectrometry, the primary sequences of these peptides were established as follows: PMM1, H-Lys-Arg-Arg-Pro-Pro-Gly-Phe-Thr-Pro-Phe-Arg-OH (1357.77 Da); PMM2, H-Ile-Asn-Trp-Lys-Lys-Ile-Ala-Ser-Ile-Gly-Lys-Glu-Val-Leu-Lys-Ala-Leu-NH2 (1909.19 Da); and PMM3, H-Phe-Leu-Ser-Ala-Leu-Leu-Gly-Met-Leu-Lys-Asn-Leu-NH2 (1317.78 Da). The suggested sequences were confirmed by MS analysis of peptide fragments obtained by enzymatic digestion. The peptide PMM1 is a lysyl-arginyl-Thr(6)-bradykinine that belongs to the wasp kinins group. The sequence of the PMM2 peptide is unique; it resembles somewhat the tetradecapeptide amides of the mastoparan group; however, the chain is extended by three additional amino acid residues. The sequence of PMM3 dodecapeptide is homologous to the peptides of the wasp chemotactic group.

Characterization of venom (Duvernoy's secretion) from twelve species of colubrid snakes and partial sequence of four venom proteins

R.E. Hill and S.P. Mackessy. Characterization of venom (Duvernoy's secretion) from twelve species of colubrid snakes and partial sequence of four venom proteins. Toxicon XX, xx-yy, 2000. - Venomous colubrids, which include more than 700 snake species worldwide, represent a vast potential source of novel biological compounds. The present study characterized venom (Duvernoy's gland secretion) collected from twelve species of opisthoglyphous (rear-fanged) colubrid snakes, an extremely diverse assemblage of non-venomous to highly venomous snakes. Most venoms displayed proteolytic activity (casein), though activity levels varied considerably. Low phosphodiesterase activity was detected in several venoms (Amphiesma stolata, Diadophis punctatus, Heterodon nasicus kennerlyi, H. n. nasicus and Thamnophis elegans vagrans), and acetylcholinesterase was found in Boiga irregularis saliva and venom, but no venoms displayed hyaluronidase, thrombin-like or kallikrein-like activities. High phospholipase A(2) (PLA(2)) activity was found in Trimorphodon biscutatus lambda venom, and moderate levels were detected in Boiga dendrophila and D. p. regalis venoms as well as B. dendrophila and H. n. nasicus salivas. Non-reducing SDS-PAGE revealed 7-20 protein bands (3.5 to over 200 kD, depending on species) for all venoms analyzed, and electrophoretic profiles of venoms were typically quite distinct from saliva profiles. Components from A. stolata, Hydrodynastes gigas, Tantilla nigriceps and T. e. vagrans venoms showed protease activity when run on gelatin zymogram gels. N-terminal protein sequences for three 26 kD venom components of three species (H. gigas, H. torquata, T. biscutatus) and one 3.5 kD component (T. nigriceps) were also obtained, and the 3.5 kD peptide showed apparent sequence homology with human vascular endothelial growth factor; these data represent the first sequences of colubrid venom components. Protease, phosphodiesterase and PLA(2) activities are also common to elapid and viperid snake venoms, but it is apparent that numerous other (as yet undescribed) components make up the majority of colubrid venom proteins. The complex nature of venoms produced by most species surveyed, and the high levels of protease or phospholipase A(2) activity of some venoms, suggest that many colubrids could become an important source of human health concern as encounters with these snakes increase.

Toward an understanding of the biochemical and pharmacological complexity of the saliva of a hematophagous sand fly Lutzomyia longipalpis

The saliva of blood-sucking arthropods contains powerful pharmacologically active substances and may be a vaccine target against some vector-borne diseases. Subtractive cloning combined with biochemical approaches was used to discover activities in the salivary glands of the hematophagous fly Lutzomyia longipalpis. Sequences of nine full-length cDNA clones were obtained, five of which are possibly associated with blood-meal acquisition, each having cDNA similarity to: (i) the bed bug Cimex lectularius apyrase, (ii) a 5'-nucleotidase/phosphodiesterase, (iii) a hyaluronidase, (iv) a protein containing a carbohydrate-recognition domain (CRD), and (v) a RGD-containing peptide with no significant matches to known proteins in the BLAST databases. Following these findings, we observed that the salivary apyrase activity of L. longipalpis is indeed similar to that of Cimex apyrase in its metal requirements. The predicted isoelectric point of the putative apyrase matches the value found for Lutzomyia salivary apyrase. A 5'-nucleotidase, as well as hyaluronidase activity, was found in the salivary glands, and the CRD-containing cDNA matches the N-terminal sequence of the HPLC-purified salivary anticlotting protein. A cDNA similar to alpha-amylase was discovered and salivary enzymatic activity demonstrated for the first time in a blood-sucking arthropod. Full-length clones were also found coding for three proteins of unknown function matching, respectively, the N-terminal sequence of an abundant salivary protein, having similarity to the CAP superfamily of proteins and the Drosophila yellow protein. Finally, two partial sequences are reported that match possible housekeeping genes. Subtractive cloning will considerably enhance efforts to unravel the salivary pharmacopeia of blood-sucking arthropods.

IgE and T-cell responses to high-molecular weight allergens from bee venom

BACKGROUND

Bee venom contains multiple allergens with a wide distribution of molecular weight. In contrast with conventional bee venom desensitization, peptide or recombinant allergen immunotherapy may have to take into account patients' individual patterns of humoral or cellular response.

OBJECTIVE

To study immunoglobulin (Ig)E and T-cell responses to high-molecular weight bee venom allergens >/= 50 kDa.

METHODS

Bee venom proteins were separated by size exclusion chromatography and fractions were characterized by one and two-dimensional gel electrophoresis. IgE antibody binding to bee venom fractions was analysed by immunoblotting and T-cell responses by proliferation assay.

RESULTS

Among 38 bee venom-hypersensitive patients, IgE recognition pattern of bee venom allergens varied greatly. IgE bound mainly to phospholipase A2 and furthermore to several proteins >/= 50 kDa (50, 54, 69, 84 and 94 kDa). N-terminal sequences of these proteins showed no homology with known proteins. In addition, peripheral mononuclear cells from patients as well as from nonatopic donors strongly proliferated in response to those proteins.

CONCLUSIONS

Although present in low amounts, high-molecular weight allergens from bee venom elicit strong IgE and T-cell responses, and may need to be considered as clinically relevant. Therefore, the development of peptide or recombinant protein-based immunotherapy for bee venom allergy may require careful characterization of such allergens.