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Xia Q, Yuan H, Wang T, Xiong L, Xin Z. Application and progress of three-dimensional bioprinting in spinal cord injury. IBRAIN 2021; 7:325-336. [PMID: 37786558 PMCID: PMC10528796 DOI: 10.1002/ibra.12005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2021] [Revised: 11/10/2021] [Accepted: 11/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023]
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a central nervous system disorder that can lead to sensory and motor dysfunction, which can seriously increase pressure and economic burden on families and societies. The current SCI treatment is mainly to stabilize the spine, prevent secondary damage, and control inflammation. Drug treatment is limited to early, large-scale use of steroids to reduce the effects of edema after SCI. In short, there is no direct treatment for SCI. Recent 3D bioprinting development provides a new solution for SCI treatment: a series of spinal cord bionic scaffolds are being developed to improve spinal cord function after injury. This paper reviews the pathophysiological characteristics of SCI, current treatment methods, and the progress of 3D bioprinting in SCI. Finally, its challenges and prospects in SCI treatment are summarized.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Hao Yuan
- Department of Orthopaedic SurgeryAffiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
- Institute of Neuroscience and Animal Zoology DepartmentKunming Medical UniversityKunmingYunnanChina
| | - Ting‐Hua Wang
- Institute of Neuroscience and Animal Zoology DepartmentKunming Medical UniversityKunmingYunnanChina
- Jinzhou Medical UniversityJinzhouLiaoningChina
- Department of Anesthesiology, Translational Neuroscience Center, Institute of Neurological Disease, West China HospitalSichuan UniversityChengduSichuanChina
| | - Liu‐Lin Xiong
- Department of AnesthesiologyAffiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
| | - Zhi‐Jun Xin
- Department of Orthopaedic SurgeryAffiliated Hospital of Zunyi Medical UniversityZunyiGuizhouChina
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Zhang Y, Wang Z, Wang Y, Li L, Wu Z, Ito Y, Yang X, Zhang P. A Novel Approach via Surface Modification of Degradable Polymers With Adhesive DOPA-IGF-1 for Neural Tissue Engineering. J Pharm Sci 2018; 108:551-562. [PMID: 30321547 DOI: 10.1016/j.xphs.2018.10.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2018] [Revised: 09/26/2018] [Accepted: 10/05/2018] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
The highly damaging state of spinal cord injuries has provided much inspiration for the design of surface modification of the implants that can promote nerve regeneration and functional reconstruction. DOPA-IGF-1, a new recombinant protein designed in our previous study, exhibited strong binding affinity to titanium and significantly enhanced the growth of NIH3T3 cells on the surface of titanium with the same biological activity as IGF-1. In this article, surface modification of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLGA) films with recombinant DOPA-IGF-1 was performed to promote the paracrine activity of human umbilical cord mesenchymal stem cells (hUCMSCs) by secreting neurotrophic factors. DOPA-IGF-1 exhibited the strongest binding ability to PLGA films than commercial IGF-1 and nonhydroxylated YKYKY-IGF-1. In vitro cultures of hUCMSCs on the modified PLGA films showed that DOPA-IGF-1@PLGA substrates significantly improved the proliferation, adhesion, and neurotrophic factors secretion of hUCMSCs, especially for nerve growth factor, as confirmed by qRT-PCR and western blot analysis. Subsequently, the acquired neurotrophic factors secreted by the hUCMSCs cultured on the DOPA-IGF-1@PLGA films obviously enhanced neurite outgrowth of PC12 cells. Taken together, PLGA substrates with DOPA-IGF-1 immobilization is a promising platform for neural tissue engineering via neurotrophic factors secretion from MSCs and should be further tested in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi Zhang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130041, PR China; Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, PR China
| | - Zongliang Wang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, PR China
| | - Yu Wang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, PR China
| | - Linlong Li
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, PR China
| | - Zhenxu Wu
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Jilin University, Changchun 130021, PR China
| | - Yoshihiro Ito
- Emergent Bioengineering Materials Research Team, RIKEN Center for Emergent Matter Science 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako-shi, Saitama 351-0198 Japan
| | - Xiaoyu Yang
- Department of Orthopaedics, The Second Hospital, Jilin University, Changchun 130041, PR China.
| | - Peibiao Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Polymer Ecomaterials, Changchun Institute of Applied Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Changchun 130022, PR China; Institute of Applied Chemistry and Engineering, University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei 230026, PR China.
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Liu S, Schackel T, Weidner N, Puttagunta R. Biomaterial-Supported Cell Transplantation Treatments for Spinal Cord Injury: Challenges and Perspectives. Front Cell Neurosci 2018; 11:430. [PMID: 29375316 PMCID: PMC5768640 DOI: 10.3389/fncel.2017.00430] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2017] [Accepted: 12/20/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI), resulting in para- and tetraplegia caused by the partial or complete disruption of descending motor and ascending sensory neurons, represents a complex neurological condition that remains incurable. Following SCI, numerous obstacles comprising of the loss of neural tissue (neurons, astrocytes, and oligodendrocytes), formation of a cavity, inflammation, loss of neuronal circuitry and function must be overcome. Given the multifaceted primary and secondary injury events that occur with SCI treatment options are likely to require combinatorial therapies. While several methods have been explored, only the intersection of two, cell transplantation and biomaterial implantation, will be addressed in detail here. Owing to the constant advance of cell culture technologies, cell-based transplantation has come to the forefront of SCI treatment in order to replace/protect damaged tissue and provide physical as well as trophic support for axonal regrowth. Biomaterial scaffolds provide cells with a protected environment from the surrounding lesion, in addition to bridging extensive damage and providing physical and directional support for axonal regrowth. Moreover, in this combinatorial approach cell transplantation improves scaffold integration and therefore regenerative growth potential. Here, we review the advances in combinatorial therapies of Schwann cells (SCs), astrocytes, olfactory ensheathing cells (OECs), mesenchymal stem cells, as well as neural stem and progenitor cells (NSPCs) with various biomaterial scaffolds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengwen Liu
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
- Department of Neurosurgery, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, Wuhan, China
| | - Thomas Schackel
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Norbert Weidner
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Radhika Puttagunta
- Spinal Cord Injury Center, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
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Lim JH, Koh S, Thomas R, Breen M, Olby NJ. Evaluation of gene expression and DNA copy number profiles of adipose tissue-derived stromal cells and consecutive neurosphere-like cells generated from dogs with naturally occurring spinal cord injury. Am J Vet Res 2017; 78:371-380. [DOI: 10.2460/ajvr.78.3.371] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Miller LE, Herbert WG. Health and economic benefits of physical activity for patients with spinal cord injury. CLINICOECONOMICS AND OUTCOMES RESEARCH 2016; 8:551-558. [PMID: 27757043 PMCID: PMC5055119 DOI: 10.2147/ceor.s115103] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Spinal cord injury (SCI) is a traumatic, life-disrupting event with an annual incidence of 17,000 cases in the US. SCI is characterized by progressive physical deconditioning due to limited mobility and lack of modalities to allow safe physical activity that may partially offset these deleterious physical changes. Approximately, 50% of patients with SCI report no leisure-time physical activity and 15% report leisure-time physical activity below the threshold where meaningful health benefits could be realized. Collectively, about 363,000 patients with SCI, or 65% of the entire spinal cord injured population in the US, engages in insufficient physical activity and represents a target population that could derive considerable health benefits from even modest physical activity levels. Currently, the annual direct costs related to SCI exceed US$45 billion in the US. Rehabilitation protocols and technologies aimed to improve functional mobility have potential to significantly reduce the risk of medical complications and cost associated with SCI. Patients who commence routine physical activity in the first post-injury year and experience typical motor function improvements would realize US$290,000 to US$435,000 in lifetime cost savings, primarily due to fewer hospitalizations and less reliance on assistive care. New assistive technologies that allow patients with SCI to safely engage in routine physical activity are desperately needed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - William G Herbert
- Miller Scientific Consulting, Inc., Asheville, NC; Department of Human Nutrition, Foods & Exercise, Virginia Tech, Blacksburg, VA, USA
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Dawson AJ, Miotke JA, Meyer RL. Intraocular BDNF promotes ectopic branching, alters motility and stimulates abnormal collaterals in regenerating optic fibers. Brain Res 2015; 1613:13-26. [PMID: 25847715 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.03.045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2014] [Revised: 03/24/2015] [Accepted: 03/26/2015] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
A great deal of effort has been invested in using trophic factors and other bioactive molecules to promote cell survival and axonal regeneration in the adult central nervous system. Far less attention has been paid to investigating potential effects that trophic factors may have that might interfere with recovery. In the visual system, BDNF has been previously reported to prevent regeneration. To test if BDNF is inherently incompatible with regeneration, BDNF was given intraocularly during optic nerve regeneration in the adult goldfish. In vivo imaging and anatomical analysis of selectively labeled axons were used as a sensitive assay for effects on regeneration within the tectum. BDNF had no detectable inhibitory effect on the ability of axons to regenerate. Normal numbers of axons regenerated into the tectum, exhibited dynamic growth and retractions similar to controls, and were able to navigate to their correct target zone in the tectum. However, BDNF was found to have additional effects that adversely affected the quality of regeneration. It promoted premature branching at ectopic locations, diminished the growth rate of axons through the tectum, and resulted in the formation of ectopic collaterals. Thus, although BDNF has robust effects on axonal behavior, it is, nevertheless, compatible with axonal regeneration, axon navigation and the formation of terminal arbors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amy J Dawson
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA; Division of Arts and Sciences, New River Community College, Dublin, VA 24084, USA.
| | - Jill A Miotke
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
| | - Ronald L Meyer
- Department of Developmental and Cell Biology, University of California at Irvine, Irvine, CA 92697, USA.
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Fouad K, Forero J, Hurd C. A Simple Analogy for Nervous System Plasticity After Injury. Exerc Sport Sci Rev 2015; 43:100-6. [DOI: 10.1249/jes.0000000000000040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
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All AH, Gharibani P, Gupta S, Bazley FA, Pashai N, Chou BK, Shah S, Resar LM, Cheng L, Gearhart JD, Kerr CL. Early intervention for spinal cord injury with human induced pluripotent stem cells oligodendrocyte progenitors. PLoS One 2015; 10:e0116933. [PMID: 25635918 PMCID: PMC4311989 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0116933] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2014] [Accepted: 12/16/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells are at the forefront of research in regenerative medicine and are envisaged as a source for personalized tissue repair and cell replacement therapy. Here, we demonstrate for the first time that oligodendrocyte progenitors (OPs) can be derived from iPS cells generated using either an episomal, non-integrating plasmid approach or standard integrating retroviruses that survive and differentiate into mature oligodendrocytes after early transplantation into the injured spinal cord. The efficiency of OP differentiation in all 3 lines tested ranged from 40% to 60% of total cells, comparable to those derived from human embryonic stem cells. iPS cell lines derived using episomal vectors or retroviruses generated a similar number of early neural progenitors and glial progenitors while the episomal plasmid-derived iPS line generated more OPs expressing late markers O1 and RIP. Moreover, we discovered that iPS-derived OPs (iPS-OPs) engrafted 24 hours following a moderate contusive spinal cord injury (SCI) in rats survived for approximately two months and that more than 70% of the transplanted cells differentiated into mature oligodendrocytes that expressed myelin associated proteins. Transplanted OPs resulted in a significant increase in the number of myelinated axons in animals that received a transplantation 24 h after injury. In addition, nearly a 5-fold reduction in cavity size and reduced glial scarring was seen in iPS-treated groups compared to the control group, which was injected with heat-killed iPS-OPs. Although further investigation is needed to understand the mechanisms involved, these results provide evidence that patient-specific, iPS-derived OPs can survive for three months and improve behavioral assessment (BBB) after acute transplantation into SCI. This is significant as determining the time in which stem cells are injected after SCI may influence their survival and differentiation capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo H. All
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
- Departments of Orthopedic Surgery, Biomedical Engineering and Medicine, Division of Neurology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Payam Gharibani
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Siddharth Gupta
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Faith A. Bazley
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Singapore Institute for Neurotechnology, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Nikta Pashai
- Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Bin-Kuan Chou
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Sandeep Shah
- Division of Hematology in Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Linda M. Resar
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Division of Hematology in Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Oncology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Pediatrics, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - Linzhao Cheng
- Graduate Program in Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Division of Hematology in Department of Medicine, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
| | - John D. Gearhart
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology in the School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
- Department of Animal Biology in the School of Veterinary Medicine; University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, United States of America
| | - Candace L. Kerr
- Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Unversity of Maryland School of Medicine, Baltimore, Maryland, United States of America
- * E-mail:
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Shrestha B, Coykendall K, Li Y, Moon A, Priyadarshani P, Yao L. Repair of injured spinal cord using biomaterial scaffolds and stem cells. Stem Cell Res Ther 2014; 5:91. [PMID: 25157690 PMCID: PMC4282172 DOI: 10.1186/scrt480] [Citation(s) in RCA: 98] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The loss of neurons and degeneration of axons after spinal cord injury result in the loss of sensory and motor functions. A bridging biomaterial construct that allows the axons to grow through has been investigated for the repair of injured spinal cord. Due to the hostility of the microenvironment in the lesion, multiple conditions need to be fulfilled to achieve improved functional recovery. A scaffold has been applied to bridge the gap of the lesion as contact guidance for axonal growth and to act as a vehicle to deliver stem cells in order to modify the microenvironment. Stem cells may improve functional recovery of the injured spinal cord by providing trophic support or directly replacing neurons and their support cells. Neural stem cells and mesenchymal stem cells have been seeded into biomaterial scaffolds and investigated for spinal cord regeneration. Both natural and synthetic biomaterials have increased stem cell survival in vivo by providing the cells with a controlled microenvironment in which cell growth and differentiation are facilitated. This optimal multi‒disciplinary approach of combining biomaterials, stem cells, and biomolecules offers a promising treatment for the injured spinal cord.
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Caron I, Papa S, Rossi F, Forloni G, Veglianese P. Nanovector-mediated drug delivery for spinal cord injury treatment. WILEY INTERDISCIPLINARY REVIEWS-NANOMEDICINE AND NANOBIOTECHNOLOGY 2014; 6:506-15. [DOI: 10.1002/wnan.1276] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2014] [Revised: 04/15/2014] [Accepted: 04/18/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Ilaria Caron
- Department of Neuroscience; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milan Italy
| | - Simonetta Papa
- Department of Neuroscience; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milan Italy
| | - Filippo Rossi
- Department of Chemistry, Materials and Chemical Engineering "Giulio Natta"; Politecnico di Milano; Milan Italy
| | - Gianluigi Forloni
- Department of Neuroscience; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milan Italy
| | - Pietro Veglianese
- Department of Neuroscience; IRCCS Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri; Milan Italy
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Mazzone GL, Mladinic M, Nistri A. Excitotoxic cell death induces delayed proliferation of endogenous neuroprogenitor cells in organotypic slice cultures of the rat spinal cord. Cell Death Dis 2013; 4:e902. [PMID: 24176860 PMCID: PMC3920932 DOI: 10.1038/cddis.2013.431] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2013] [Revised: 09/26/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
The aim of the present report was to investigate whether, in the mammalian spinal cord, cell death induced by transient excitotoxic stress could trigger activation and proliferation of endogenous neuroprogenitor cells as a potential source of a lesion repair process and the underlying time course. Because it is difficult to address these issues in vivo, we used a validated model of spinal injury based on rat organotypic slice cultures that retain the fundamental tissue cytoarchitecture and replicate the main characteristics of experimental damage to the whole spinal cord. Excitotoxicity evoked by 1 h kainate application produced delayed neuronal death (40%) peaking after 1 day without further losses or destruction of white matter cells for up to 2 weeks. After 10 days, cultures released a significantly larger concentration of endogenous glutamate, suggesting functional network plasticity. Indeed, after 1 week the total number of cells had returned to untreated control level, indicating substantial cell proliferation. Activation of progenitor cells started early as they spread outside the central area, and persisted for 2 weeks. Although expression of the neuronal progenitor phenotype was observed at day 3, peaked at 1 week and tapered off at 2 weeks, very few cells matured to neurons. Astroglia precursors started proliferating later and matured at 2 weeks. These data show insult-related proliferation of endogenous spinal neuroprogenitors over a relatively brief time course, and delineate a narrow temporal window for future experimental attempts to drive neuronal maturation and for identifying the factors regulating this process.
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Affiliation(s)
- G L Mazzone
- Department of Neuroscience, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA), Trieste, Italy
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Mladinic M, Nistri A. Microelectrode arrays in combination with in vitro models of spinal cord injury as tools to investigate pathological changes in network activity: facts and promises. FRONTIERS IN NEUROENGINEERING 2013; 6:2. [PMID: 23459694 PMCID: PMC3586932 DOI: 10.3389/fneng.2013.00002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2012] [Accepted: 02/12/2013] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Microelectrode arrays (MEAs) represent an important tool to study the basic characteristics of spinal networks that control locomotion in physiological conditions. Fundamental properties of this neuronal rhythmicity like burst origin, propagation, coordination, and resilience can, thus, be investigated at multiple sites within a certain spinal topography and neighboring circuits. A novel challenge will be to apply this technology to unveil the mechanisms underlying pathological processes evoked by spinal cord injury (SCI). To achieve this goal, it is necessary to fully identify spinal networks that make up the locomotor central pattern generator (CPG) and to understand their operational rules. In this review, the use of isolated spinal cord preparations from rodents, or organotypic spinal slice cultures is discussed to study rhythmic activity. In particular, this review surveys our recently developed in vitro models of SCI by evoking excitotoxic (or even hypoxic/dysmetabolic) damage to spinal networks and assessing the impact on rhythmic activity and cell survival. These pathological processes which evolve via different cell death mechanisms are discussed as a paradigm to apply MEA recording for detailed mapping of the functional damage and its time-dependent evolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Miranda Mladinic
- Neuroscience Department, International School for Advanced Studies (SISSA) Trieste, Italy ; Spinal Person Injury Neurorehabilitation Applied Laboratory, Istituto di Medicina Fisica e Riabilitazione Udine, Italy ; Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka Rijeka, Croatia
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