Increased HIF-1α and HIF-2α Accumulation, but Decreased Microvascular Density, in Chronic Hyperoxia and Hypercapnia in the Mouse Cerebral Cortex

Relationship between Hypoxia and Hypercapnia Tolerance and Life Expectancy

The review discusses the potential relationship between hypoxia resistance and longevity, the influence of carbon dioxide on the mechanisms of aging of the mammalian organism, and intermittent hypercapnic-hypoxic effects on the signaling pathways of aging mechanisms. In the article, we focused on the potential mechanisms of the gero-protective efficacy of carbon dioxide when combined with hypoxia. The review summarizes the possible influence of intermittent hypoxia and hypercapnia on aging processes in the nervous system. We considered the perspective variants of the application of hypercapnic-hypoxic influences for achieving active longevity and the prospects for the possibilities of developing hypercapnic-hypoxic training methods.

Molecular Mechanisms of Neuroprotection after the Intermittent Exposures of Hypercapnic Hypoxia

The review introduces the stages of formation and experimental confirmation of the hypothesis regarding the mutual potentiation of neuroprotective effects of hypoxia and hypercapnia during their combined influence (hypercapnic hypoxia). The main focus is on the mechanisms and signaling pathways involved in the formation of ischemic tolerance in the brain during intermittent hypercapnic hypoxia. Importantly, the combined effect of hypoxia and hypercapnia exerts a more pronounced neuroprotective effect compared to their separate application. Some signaling systems are associated with the predominance of the hypoxic stimulus (HIF-1α, A1 receptors), while others (NF-κB, antioxidant activity, inhibition of apoptosis, maintenance of selective blood-brain barrier permeability) are mainly modulated by hypercapnia. Most of the molecular and cellular mechanisms involved in the formation of brain tolerance to ischemia are due to the contribution of both excess carbon dioxide and oxygen deficiency (ATP-dependent potassium channels, chaperones, endoplasmic reticulum stress, mitochondrial metabolism reprogramming). Overall, experimental studies indicate the dominance of hypercapnia in the neuroprotective effect of its combined action with hypoxia. Recent clinical studies have demonstrated the effectiveness of hypercapnic-hypoxic training in the treatment of childhood cerebral palsy and diabetic polyneuropathy in children. Combining hypercapnic hypoxia with pharmacological modulators of neuro/cardio/cytoprotection signaling pathways is likely to be promising for translating experimental research into clinical medicine.

Shengyu Decoction treating vascular cognitive impairment by promoting AKT/HIF-1α/VEGF related cerebrovascular generation and ameliorating MAPK/NF-κB mediated neuroinflammation

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Shengyu Decoction (SYD), a classical Chinese medicine formula, is good at nourishing blood, promoting blood circulation, and soothe the nerves. SYD can improve cognitive ability. This decoction is suitable for treating vascular cognitive impairment (VCI). however, its active ingredients and possible mechanism have not been investigated.

AIM OF THE STUDY

This study was conducted to observe the effects of SYD on improving the cognitive abilities of rats with VCI, to explore its active ingredients and mechanism.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

The rats with VCI model were established by bilateral common carotid artery occlusion (BCCAO), and the effects of SYD (5, 2.5 g/kg) on the cognitive abilities of VCI rats were evaluated using the Morris water maze (MWM) and neurological assessment. The pathological changes of hippocampal CA1 were observed by H &E and Nissl staining. The effect of SYD on cerebral blood flow (CBF) was evaluated by Laser Speckle Contrast Imager. The expression of CD31 in the cerebral cortex was measured by immunofluorescence (IF) to evaluate the number of cerebral micro vessels. The levels of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in the hippocampus were determined using an ELISA kit, and the active components in the plasma and brain tissues of rats after SYD administration were analyzed using UPLC-Q-TOF-MS/MS. The interaction network of the compound-target pathway was established using the SWISS Target, GO, and DAVID databases. The expression of AKT/HIF-1α/VEGF and p38 MAPK signaling pathway in the brain tissues was determined using western blotting (WB).

RESULTS

SYD (2.5, 5 g/kg) significantly improved the cognitive abilities of VCI rats in the MWM and neurological assessment. H&E and Nissl staining showed that SYD significantly ameliorated the pathological hippocampal CA1 area and increased the number of Nissl bodies. The Laser Speckle Contrast Imager showed that the cortical CBF of VCI rats in the SYD group was significantly increased, and the IF results showed that CD31 expression was significantly increased in the SYD group. The ELISA results showed that the contents of IL-6, IL-1β, and TNF-α in SYD were significantly reduced. A total of 29 compounds were found in the plasma and brain tissues of the rats treated with SYD. Network pharmacology revealed 99 targets for the treatment of VCI. Pathway enrichment analysis showed that the HIF-1 and MAPK signaling pathways might be important for SYD to ameliorate VCI. WB showed that the expressions of AKT, HIF-1α, and VEGF in the brain tissues of rats were significantly increased; in addition, NF-κB and p38 MAPK were significantly reduced in the SYD group.

CONCLUSION

SYD can improve the cognitive abilities of VCI rats. The mechanism of action of its active ingredients improves cognitive impairment by affecting the AKT/HIF-1α/VEGF and p38 MAPK/NF-κB signaling pathways, promoting cerebrovascular generation, and ameliorating neuroinflammation.

Hypoxia induces de novo formation of cerebral collaterals and lessens the severity of ischemic stroke

Pial collaterals provide protection in stroke. Evidence suggests their formation late during gestation (collaterogenesis) is driven by reduced oxygen levels in the cerebral watersheds. The purpose of this study was to determine if collaterogenesis can be re-activated in the adult to induce formation of additional collaterals ("neo-collateral formation", NCF). Mice were gradually acclimated to reduced inspired oxygen (FIO₂) and maintained at 12, 10, 8.5 or 7% for two-to-eight weeks. Hypoxemia induced "dose"-dependent NCF and remodeling of native collaterals, and decreased infarct volume after permanent MCA occlusion. In contrast, no formation occurred of addition collateral-like intra-tree anastomoses, PComs, or branches within the MCA tree. Hypoxic NCF, remodeling and infarct protection were durable, i.e. retained for at least six weeks after return to normoxia. Hypoxia increased expression of Hif2α, Vegfa, Rabep2, Angpt2, Tie2 and Cxcr4. Neo-collateral formation was abolished in mice lacking Rabep2, a novel gene involved in VEGFA→Flk1 signaling and required for formation of collaterals during development, and inhibited by knockdown of Vegfa, Flk1 and Cxcr4. Rabep2-dependent NCF was also induced by permanent MCA occlusion. This is the first report that hypoxia induces new pial collaterals to form. Hypoxia- and occlusion-induced neo-collateral formation provide models to study collaterogenesis in the adult.

Differential Expression of Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor in the Cortex and Hippocampus upon Cerebral Hypoperfusion

BACKGROUND/AIM

Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) provides tolerance against ischemic brain injury, yet, the pattern of VEGF expression in the neurogenic zones following chronic cerebral hypoperfusion has not been studied. Here we evaluated the immunoreactivity of VEGF in a rat model of chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

Chronic hypoperfusion was induced by bilateral common carotid artery ligation in rats. Immunohistochemistry was performed against hypoxia-inducible factor-1α (HIF-1α) and VEGF on brain sections.

RESULTS

The density of HIF1α-positive cells in the hypoxia group was increased in the cerebral cortex and hippocampus. Further, the density of VEGF-positive cells was significantly higher in the hypoxia group compared to the control group in the cerebral cortex whereas it was similar in the subventricular zone, and in the dentate gyrus in the hippocampus between the two groups.

CONCLUSION

The pattern of VEGF expression varies in different brain regions following chronic cerebral hypoperfusion.

Cerebral Angioplasticity: The Anatomical Contribution to Ensuring Appropriate Oxygen Transport to Brain

In order to maintain proper function, mammalian brain requires a significant fraction of the energy provided through whole body oxygen consumption and oxidative phosphorylation. This has been fairly well known for a long time. More recently there has been an increased appreciation that, while whole brain blood flow remains fairly constant, there are large regional changes in local blood flow to account for spatial and temporal heterogeneity of neuronal activity. This latter phenomenon requires an extensive regulatory system for local oxygen delivery that involves arteriolar and capillary control mechanisms. The ISOTT has been a major contributor to the study of oxygen supply and demand through studies of the mechanisms of vascular dilation and constriction in response to energy expenditure and availability of substrate and oxygen. Nevertheless, it has become clear in the past few decades that in addition to acute, physiological responses to energy demand and oxygen/substrate availability, there are regulatory mechanisms that are continuously operating to control the capillary distribution over a time course of weeks. This process of "angioplasticity" results in the gradual acclimatization of the brain capillary bed to prolonged changes in oxygen/substrate availability and/or neuronal activity patterns. Angioplasticity is primarily regulated through the hypoxia inducible transcription factor, acting as a detector of the balance between oxygen delivery and energy demand at the level of the cell redox state, controlling vascular endothelial growth factor production which helps determine capillary density in consort with the cyclooxygenase-2/angiopoietin-2 pathway that controls endothelial cell junction mechanical stability. We can conclude that the structure-function of brain capillaries is regulated during prolonged challenges to energy supply-demand balance within the physiological range. We can conclude that over the physiological range of ambient oxygen, brain capillary density is proportional to fraction inspired oxygen. The primary mechanisms for regulation of brain capillary density are HIF-1/VEGF and COX-2/PGE2/ang-2 pathways of angiogenesis and angiolysis.

Oxygen Supplementation Ameliorates Tibial Development via Stimulating Vascularization in Tibetan Chickens at High Altitudes

Tibetan chickens (TBCs) living in high-altitude hypoxic environment, are characterized by delayed growth and small size as compared to low-altitude broiler chickens. Increasing evidences signify the beneficial effect of oxygen (O₂) supplementation in animal's body for regulating their body growth and organ development. However, it is still unclear that whether O₂ supplementation has an ameliorative and protective role in TBCs living at high altitude. In this study, we first found that O₂ supplementation not only increased the survival rate but also promoted the growth of TBCs associated with bone development. Importantly, we observed that the increase of vascular distribution in the tibial hypertrophic zone could contribute to promote growth and development of the tibia, which is highly correlated with the up-regulated expression level of vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)-A and VEGF receptor-1 (VEGFR1). Additionally, hypoxia inducible factor (HIF)-1ɑ also has a stimulative elevation by O₂ supplementation. These results were confirmed by histology, immunohistochemistry, qRT-PCR and Western blotting techniques. Altogether, these findings demonstrated that the up-regulation of VEGFA and its receptors are accompanied by proangiogeneic factor (HIF-1α) expression, which were required for angiogenesis to meliorate tibia development of TBCs in hypoxia-induced bone suppression that occurred during O₂ supplementation. Thus, O₂ supplementation may serve as a good applicant for promoting and meliorating bone development in juvenile high-altitude animals.

Analysis of the relationship between ultrasound of breast cancer DOT-SDI and the expression of MVD, VEGF and HIF-1α

Ultrasonic light scattering tomography system is a new imaging technique for breast function, which associates with diffused optical tomography (DOT) with ultrasonic examination. It locates breast neoplasm with ultrasonic examination and measures the total hemoglobin concentration inside the tumor with DOT photon emission to reflect the metabolic state of tumors and then comes to synthesis diagnostic index to judge benign and malignant tumors. This diagnosis method has significant affection on diagnosis of benign and malignant tumors at home and abroad. In the development of breast cancer, local tissue hypoxia leads to a large number of new blood vessels when the tumor grows faster than the rate of angiogenesis. A recent study found microvessel density (MVD), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) and hypoxia-inducible factor-1 alpha (HIF-1α) play a major role in angiogenesis of breast cancer. This study analyses the relationship between breast cancer ultrasound synthesis diagnostic index (SDI) and the expression of MVD, VEGF and HIF-1α by testing the expression level of the breast cancer gene MVD, VEGF and HIF-1α.

Minocycline ameliorates hypoxia-induced blood-brain barrier damage by inhibition of HIF-1α through SIRT-3/PHD-2 degradation pathway

BACKGROUND

Minocycline, a second-generation tetracycline alleviates neuro-inflammation and protects the blood-brain barrier (BBB) in ischemia stroke. However, the effect of minocycline in hypoxia-induced BBB damage is unclear. Here, we have investigated the effect of minocycline under hypoxia and explored its possible underlying mechanisms.

METHODS

The effect of minocycline was examined in vitro in Human Brain Microvascular Endothelial Cells (HBMECs) using Trans Epithelial Electric Resistance (TEER). Protein and mRNA expression of Hypoxia-Inducible Factors-1α (HIF-1α), matrix metalloproteinases (MMP-2 and MMP-9) and tight junction proteins (TJs) were detected by using Western blot and quantitative reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). The translocation and transcription of HIF-1α were detected by using immunocytochemistry and luciferase reporter assay. In vivo, to adult male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats under hypobaric hypoxia were administered minocycline for 1h and BBB permeability was tested by using Evans Blue and Transmission Electron Microscopy (TEM). Also, reduction of NAD-dependent deacetylase sirtuin-3 (SIRT-3)/proline hydroxylase-2 (PHD-2) signaling pathway was evaluated.

RESULTS

Minocycline increased TEER in HBMECs after hypoxia (P<0.05), and reduced the extravasation of Evans Blue (P<0.05) and colloidal gold nanoparticles in rats. Minocycline administration significantly reduced HIF-1α expression, protein and mRNA expression of MMP-2, MMP-9 and Vascular Endothelial Growth Factor (VEGF) (P<0.05), and increased TJs (ZO-1, claudin-5 and occluding) (P<0.05) in HBMECs after hypoxia. Furthermore, minocycline reversed the hypoxia-induced reduction of PHD-2 (P<0.05) and SIRT-3 (P<0.05). Effects of minocycline were abolished by siRNA-mediated knockdown of SIRT-3 in the brain.

CONCLUSIONS

Minocycline inhibits HIF-1α-mediated cellular responses and protects BBB integrity through SIRT-3/PHD-2 pathway, proving to be a potential drug for the prevention and treatment of hypoxic brain injuries.

The common antitussive agent dextromethorphan protects against hyperoxia-induced cell death in established in vivo and in vitro models of neonatal brain injury

Preterm infants are prematurely subjected to relatively high oxygen concentrations, even when supplemental oxygen is not administered. There is increasing evidence to show that an excess of oxygen is toxic to the developing brain. Dextromethorphan (DM), a frequently used antitussive agent with pleiotropic mechanisms of action, has been shown to be neuroprotective in various models of central nervous system pathology. Due to its numerous beneficial properties, it might also be able to counteract detrimental effects of a neonatal oxygen insult. The aim of the current study was to evaluate its therapeutic potential in established cell culture and rodent models of hyperoxia-induced neonatal brain injury. For in vitro studies pre- and immature oligodendroglial (OLN-93) cells were subjected to hyperoxic conditions for 48 h after pre-treatment with increasing doses of DM. For in vivo studies 6-day-old Wistar rat pups received a single intraperitoneal injection of DM in two different dosages prior to being exposed to hyperoxia for 24h. Cell viability and caspase-3 activation were assessed as outcome parameters at the end of exposure. DM significantly increased cell viability in immature oligodendroglial cells subjected to hyperoxia. In pre-oligodendroglial cells cell viability was not significantly affected by DM treatment. In vivo caspase-3 activation induced by hyperoxic exposure was significantly lower after administration of DM in gray and white matter areas. In control animals kept under normoxic conditions DM did not significantly influence caspase-3-dependent apoptosis. The present results indicate that DM is a promising and safe treatment strategy for neonatal hyperoxia-induced brain injury that merits further investigation.