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Lal JA, Vaidya A, Gutiérrez-Ibarluzea I, Dauben HP, Brand A. The Learning-Adapting-Leveling model: from theory to hypothesis of steps for implementation of basic genome-based evidence in personalized medicine. Per Med 2013; 10:683-701. [PMID: 29768763 DOI: 10.2217/pme.13.72] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
We see a backlog in the effective and efficient integration of personalized medicine applications such as genome-based information and technologies into healthcare systems. This article aims to expand on the steps of a published innovative model, which addresses the bottleneck of real-time integration into healthcare. We present a deconstruction of the Learning-Adapting-Leveling model to simplify the steps. We found out that throughout the technology transfer pipeline, contacts, assessments and adaptations/feedback loops are made with health needs assessment, health technology assessment and health impact assessment professionals in the same order by the academic-industrial complex, resulting in early-on involvement of all stakeholders. We conclude that the model steps can be used to resolve the bottleneck of implementation of personalized medicine application into healthcare systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan A Lal
- Institute for Public Health Genomics, Department of Genetics & Cell Biology, School for Oncology & Developmental Biology (GROW), Faculty of Health Medicine & Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands.
| | - Anil Vaidya
- Department of Clinical Epidemiology & Medical Technology Assessment (KEMTA), School for Public Health & Primary Care (CAPHRI), Faculty of Health, Medicine & Life Sciences, Maastricht University Medical Center, 6202 AZ Maastricht, The Netherlands
| | - Iñaki Gutiérrez-Ibarluzea
- Osteba, Basque Office for Health Technology Assessment, Department of Health, Basque Government, Donostia-San Sebastian, 1 01010-Vitoria-Gasteiz, Basque Country, Spain
| | - Hans-Peter Dauben
- German Institute for Medical Documentation & Information - DIMDI, Waisenhausgasse 36-38a, 50676 Cologne, Germany
| | - Angela Brand
- Institute for Public Health Genomics, Department of Genetics & Cell Biology, School for Oncology & Developmental Biology (GROW), Faculty of Health Medicine & Life Sciences, Maastricht University, Universiteitssingel 50, 6229 ER Maastricht, The Netherlands
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Sriram K, Soliman S, Fages F. Dynamics of the interlocked positive feedback loops explaining the robust epigenetic switching in Candida albicans. J Theor Biol 2009; 258:71-88. [PMID: 19490874 DOI: 10.1016/j.jtbi.2009.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2008] [Revised: 11/29/2008] [Accepted: 01/13/2009] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
The two element mutual activation and inhibitory positive feedback loops are a common motifs that occur in many biological systems in both isolated and interlocked form, as for example, in the cell division cycle and thymus differentiation in eukaryotes. The properties of three element interlocked positive feedback loops that embeds both mutual activation and inhibition are studied in depth for their bistable properties by performing bifurcation and stochastic simulations. Codimension one and two bifurcations reveal important properties like robustness to parameter variations and adaptability under various conditions by its ability to fine tune the threshold to a wide range of values and to maintain a wide bistable regime. Furthermore, we show that in the interlocked circuit, mutual inhibition controls the decision to switch from OFF to ON state, while mutual activation enforces the decision. This view is supported through a concrete biological example Candida albicans, a human fungal pathogen that can exist in two distinctive cell types; one in the default white state and the other in an opaque form. Stochastic switching between these two forms takes place due to the epigenetic alternation induced by the transcriptional regulators in the circuit, albeit without any rearrangement of the nuclear chromosomes. The transcriptional regulators constitute interlocked mutual activation and inhibition feedback circuits that provide adaptable threshold and wide bistable regime. These positive feedback loops are shown to be responsible for robust noise induced transitions without chattering, persistence of particular phenotypes for many generations and selective exhibition of one particular form of phenotype when mutated. Finally, we propose for synthetic biology constructs to use interlocked positive feedback loops instead of two element positive feedback loops because they are better controlled than isolated mutual activation and mutual inhibition feedback circuits.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Sriram
- Project-team Contraintes, INRIA Paris-Rocquencourt, France.
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Tsai TYC, Choi YS, Ma W, Pomerening JR, Tang C, Ferrell JE. Robust, tunable biological oscillations from interlinked positive and negative feedback loops. Science 2008; 321:126-9. [PMID: 18599789 PMCID: PMC2728800 DOI: 10.1126/science.1156951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 439] [Impact Index Per Article: 27.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
A simple negative feedback loop of interacting genes or proteins has the potential to generate sustained oscillations. However, many biological oscillators also have a positive feedback loop, raising the question of what advantages the extra loop imparts. Through computational studies, we show that it is generally difficult to adjust a negative feedback oscillator's frequency without compromising its amplitude, whereas with positive-plus-negative feedback, one can achieve a widely tunable frequency and near-constant amplitude. This tunability makes the latter design suitable for biological rhythms like heartbeats and cell cycles that need to provide a constant output over a range of frequencies. Positive-plus-negative oscillators also appear to be more robust and easier to evolve, rationalizing why they are found in contexts where an adjustable frequency is unimportant.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tony Yu-Chen Tsai
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305–5174, USA
| | - Yoon Sup Choi
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305–5174, USA
- School of Interdisciplinary Bioscience and Bioengineering, Pohang University of Science and Technology, Pohang, 790-784, Republic of Korea
| | - Wenzhe Ma
- Center for Theoretical Biology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143–2540, USA
| | | | - Chao Tang
- Center for Theoretical Biology, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
- California Institute for Quantitative Biosciences, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143–2540, USA
| | - James E. Ferrell
- Department of Chemical and Systems Biology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA 94305–5174, USA
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Abstract
Cellular networks are composed of complicated interconnections among components, and some subnetworks of particular functioning are often identified as network motifs. Among such network motifs, feedback loops are thought to play important dynamical roles. Intriguingly, such feedback loops are very often found as a coupled structure in cellular circuits. Therefore, we integrated all the scattered information regarding the coupled feedbacks in various cellular circuits and investigated the dynamical role of each coupled structure. Finally, we discovered that coupled positive feedbacks enhance signal amplification and bistable characteristics; coupled negative feedbacks realize enhanced homeostasis; coupled positive and negative feedbacks enable reliable decision-making by properly modulating signal responses and effectively dealing with noise.
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Cullen PJ, Xu-Friedman R, Delrow J, Sprague GF. Genome-wide analysis of the response to protein glycosylation deficiency in yeast. FEMS Yeast Res 2007; 6:1264-73. [PMID: 17156023 PMCID: PMC4447327 DOI: 10.1111/j.1567-1364.2006.00120.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Protein modification by glycosylation occurs through an essential biochemical pathway that produces mannosyl side chain substrates, which are covalently attached to proteins in the endoplasmic reticulum. We used DNA microarray analysis to characterize the cellular response to a conditional defect (pmi40-101) in the protein glycosylation pathway. Expression profiles were obtained from DNA microarrays containing essentially every gene from Saccharomyces cerevisiae. We validated the microarray analysis by examining the expression patterns of induced genes using transcriptional lacZ fusions. The major class of genes differentially expressed in the glycosylation mutant overlapped significantly with that of a starvation response and included those required for gluconeogenesis, the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles, and protein and amino acid biosynthesis. Two mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways were also activated in the mutant, the filamentous growth and protein kinase C pathways. Taken together, our results suggest that a checkpoint is activated in response to a protein glycosylation defect, allowing the cell to mount an adaptive response by the activation of multiple MAP kinase pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul J Cullen
- Department of Biological Sciences, State University at Buffalo, Buffalo, NY 14260-1300, USA.
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Kim D, Kwon YK, Cho KH. Coupled positive and negative feedback circuits form an essential building block of cellular signaling pathways. Bioessays 2007; 29:85-90. [PMID: 17187378 DOI: 10.1002/bies.20511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
Cellular circuits have positive and negative feedback loops that allow them to respond properly to noisy external stimuli. It is intriguing that such feedback loops exist in many cases in a particular form of coupled positive and negative feedback loops with different time delays. As a result of our mathematical simulations and investigations into various experimental evidences, we found that such coupled feedback circuits can rapidly turn on a reaction to a proper stimulus, robustly maintain its status, and immediately turn off the reaction when the stimulus disappears. In other words, coupled feedback loops enable cellular systems to produce perfect responses to noisy stimuli with respect to signal duration and amplitude. This suggests that coupled positive and negative feedback loops form essential signal transduction motifs in cellular signaling systems.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dongsan Kim
- College of Medicine, Seoul National University, Jongno-gu, Seoul, Korea
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Lottersberger F, Panza A, Lucchini G, Piatti S, Longhese MP. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae 14-3-3 proteins are required for the G1/S transition, actin cytoskeleton organization and cell wall integrity. Genetics 2006; 173:661-75. [PMID: 16648583 PMCID: PMC1526496 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.106.058172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
14-3-3 proteins are highly conserved polypeptides that participate in many biological processes by binding phosphorylated target proteins. The Saccharomyces cerevisiae BMH1 and BMH2 genes, whose concomitant deletion is lethal, encode two functionally redundant 14-3-3 isoforms. To gain insights into the essential function(s) shared by these proteins, we searched for high-dosage suppressors of the growth defects of temperature-sensitive bmh mutants. Both the protein kinase C1 (Pkc1) and its upstream regulators Wsc2 and Mid2 were found to act as high dosage suppressors of bmh mutants' temperature sensitivity, indicating a functional interaction between 14-3-3 and Pkc1. Consistent with a role of 14-3-3 proteins in Pkc1-dependent cellular processes, shift to the restrictive temperature of bmh mutants severely impaired initiation of DNA replication, polarization of the actin cytoskeleton, and budding, as well as cell wall integrity. Because Pkc1 acts in concert with the Swi4-Swi6 (SBF) transcriptional activator to control all these processes, the defective G(1)/S transition of bmh mutants might be linked to impaired SBF activity. Indeed, the levels of the G(1) cyclin CLN2 transcripts, which are positively regulated by SBF, were dramatically reduced in bmh mutants. Remarkably, budding and DNA replication defects of bmh mutants were suppressed by CLN2 expression from an SBF-independent promoter, suggesting that 14-3-3 proteins might contribute to regulating the late G(1) transcriptional program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisca Lottersberger
- Dipartimento di Biotecnologie e Bioscienze, Università di Milano-Bicocca, 20126 Milan, Italy
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Brandman O, Ferrell JE, Li R, Meyer T. Interlinked fast and slow positive feedback loops drive reliable cell decisions. Science 2005; 310:496-8. [PMID: 16239477 PMCID: PMC3175767 DOI: 10.1126/science.1113834] [Citation(s) in RCA: 312] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/29/2022]
Abstract
Positive feedback is a ubiquitous signal transduction motif that allows systems to convert graded inputs into decisive, all-or-none outputs. Here we investigate why the positive feedback switches that regulate polarization of budding yeast, calcium signaling, Xenopus oocyte maturation, and various other processes use multiple interlinked loops rather than single positive feedback loops. Mathematical simulations revealed that linking fast and slow positive feedback loops creates a "dual-time" switch that is both rapidly inducible and resistant to noise in the upstream signaling system.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onn Brandman
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, 94305, USA.
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Bergkessel M, Reese JC. An essential role for the Saccharomyces cerevisiae DEAD-box helicase DHH1 in G1/S DNA-damage checkpoint recovery. Genetics 2005; 167:21-33. [PMID: 15166134 PMCID: PMC1470881 DOI: 10.1534/genetics.167.1.21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The eukaryotic cell cycle displays a degree of plasticity in its regulation; cell cycle progression can be transiently arrested in response to environmental stresses. While the signaling pathways leading to cell cycle arrest are beginning to be well understood, the regulation of the release from arrest has not been well characterized. Here we show that DHH1, encoding a DEAD-box RNA helicase orthologous to the human putative proto-oncogene p54/RCK, is important in release from DNA-damage-induced cell cycle arrest at the G1/S checkpoint. DHH1 mutants are not defective for DNA repair and recover normally from the G2/M and replication checkpoints, suggesting a specific function for Dhh1p in recovery from G1/S checkpoint arrest. Dhh1p has been suggested to play a role in partitioning mRNAs between translatable and nontranslatable pools, and our results implicate this modulation of mRNA metabolism in the recovery from G1/S cell cycle arrest following DNA damage. Furthermore, the high degree of conservation between DHH1 and its human ortholog suggests that this mechanism is conserved among all eukaryotes and potentially important in human disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan Bergkessel
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Pennsylvania State University, University Park, Pennsylvania 16802, USA
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Willis IM, Desai N, Upadhya R. Signaling repression of transcription by RNA polymerase III in yeast. PROGRESS IN NUCLEIC ACID RESEARCH AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2004; 77:323-53. [PMID: 15196897 DOI: 10.1016/s0079-6603(04)77009-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Ian M Willis
- Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, 1300 Morris Park Avenue, Bronx, NY 10461 USA
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Chawla G, Sapra AK, Surana U, Vijayraghavan U. Dependence of pre-mRNA introns on PRP17, a non-essential splicing factor: implications for efficient progression through cell cycle transitions. Nucleic Acids Res 2003; 31:2333-43. [PMID: 12711678 PMCID: PMC154219 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkg333] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Saccharomyces cerevisiae PRP17 (CDC40) encodes a second-step pre-mRNA splicing factor with a role in cell division. The functions of Prp17 in specific cell cycle transitions were examined using temperature-sensitive alleles in arrest/release experiments. We find that G(1)/S and G(2)/M transitions depend on Prp17. G(1)-synchronized prp17::LEU2 cells arrest at non-permissive temperatures as unbudded haploid cells with low levels of CLN1, CLB5 and RNR1 transcripts. This indicates a Prp17 execution point at or prior to Start. Reduced levels of alpha-tubulin protein, a mitotic spindle component, underlie the benomyl sensitivity of prp17 mutants and possibly their G(2)/M arrest. Splicing of TUB1 and TUB3 transcripts, which encode alpha-tubulin, was analyzed in prp17 and other second-step factor mutants. TUB1 splicing is inefficient in prp17, prp16 and prp22, and marginally affected in prp18, slu7-1 and psf1-1. TUB3 splicing is similarly affected. In vitro splicing with TUB3 pre-mRNA demonstrates a compromised second step in prp17::LEU2 extracts, implicating a direct role for Prp17 in its efficient splicing. Genomic replacement of an intronless TUB1 gene relieves the benomyl sensitivity of prp17 mutants; however, they remain temperature sensitive, implying multiple limiting factors for mitosis. The data suggest that integration of splicing with the cell cycle is important for G(1)/S and G(2)/M transitions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Geetanjali Chawla
- Department of Microbiology and Cell Biology, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560012, India
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12
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Abstract
To understand complex biological systems requires the integration of experimental and computational research -- in other words a systems biology approach. Computational biology, through pragmatic modelling and theoretical exploration, provides a powerful foundation from which to address critical scientific questions head-on. The reviews in this Insight cover many different aspects of this energetic field, although all, in one way or another, illuminate the functioning of modular circuits, including their robustness, design and manipulation. Computational systems biology addresses questions fundamental to our understanding of life, yet progress here will lead to practical innovations in medicine, drug discovery and engineering.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hiroaki Kitano
- Sony Computer Science Laboratories, Inc., Shinagwa, Tokyo, Japan.
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Gerald JNF, Benjamin JM, Kron SJ. Robust G1 checkpoint arrest in budding yeast: dependence on DNA damage signaling and repair. J Cell Sci 2002; 115:1749-57. [PMID: 11950891 DOI: 10.1242/jcs.115.8.1749] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Although most eukaryotes can arrest in G1 after ionizing radiation, the existence or significance of a G1 checkpoint in S. cerevisiae has been challenged. Previous studies of G1 response to chemical mutagens, X-ray or UV irradiation indicate that the delay before replication is transient and may reflect a strong intra-S-phase checkpoint. We examined the yeast response to double-stranded breaks in G1 using γ irradiation. G1 irradiation induces repair foci on chromosome spreads and a Rad53 band shift characteristic of activation, which suggest an active DNA damage response. Consistent with a G1 arrest, bud emergence, spindle pole duplication and DNA replication are each delayed in a dose-dependent manner. Sensitivity to mating pheromone is prolonged to over 18 hours when G1 cells are lethally γ or UV irradiated. Strikingly, G1 delay is the predominant response to continuousγ irradiation at a dose that confers no loss of viability but delays cell division. Like the G2/M checkpoint, G1 delay is completely dependent on both RAD9 and RAD24 epistasis groups but independent of POLϵ. Lethally irradiated rad9 mutants rapidly exit G1 but perform a slow S phase, whereas rad17 and rad24 mutants are completely arrest deficient. Distinct from γ irradiation, G1 arrest after UV is RAD14 dependent, suggesting that DNA damage processing is required for checkpoint activation. Therefore, as in the yeast G2/M checkpoint response, free DNA ends and/or single-stranded DNA are necessary and sufficient to induce a bona fide G1 checkpoint arrest.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan N Fitz Gerald
- Center for Molecular Oncology, Department of Molecular Genetics and Cell Biology, University of Chicago, Chicago, IL 60637, USA
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Heintz N. BAC to the future: the use of bac transgenic mice for neuroscience research. Nat Rev Neurosci 2001; 2:861-70. [PMID: 11733793 DOI: 10.1038/35104049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 264] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- N Heintz
- Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York 10021, USA.
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Swaroop M, Wang Y, Miller P, Duan H, Jatkoe T, Madore SJ, Sun Y. Yeast homolog of human SAG/ROC2/Rbx2/Hrt2 is essential for cell growth, but not for germination: chip profiling implicates its role in cell cycle regulation. Oncogene 2000; 19:2855-66. [PMID: 10851089 DOI: 10.1038/sj.onc.1203635] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
In an attempt to understand the signaling pathway mediating redox-induced apoptosis, we cloned SAG, an evolutionarily conserved zinc RING finger gene that, when overexpressed, protects cells from apoptosis induced by redox agents. Here we report functional characterization of SAG by the use of yeast genetics approach. Targeted disruption of ySAG, yeast homolog of human SAG, and subsequent tetrad analysis revealed that ySAG is required for yeast viability. Complementation experiment showed that the lethal phenotype induced by the ySAG deletion is fully rescued by wildtype SAG, but not by several hSAG mutants. Complementation experiment has also confirmed that ySAG is essential for normal vegetative growth, rather than being required for sporulation. Furthermore, cell death induced by SAG deletion was accompanied by cell enlargement and abnormal cell cycle profiling with an increased DNA content. Importantly, SAG was found to be the second family member of Rbx (RING box protein) or ROC (Regulator of cullins) or Hrt that is a component of SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase. Indeed, like ROC1/Rbx1/Hrt1, SAG binds to Cul1 and SAG-Cul1 complex has ubiquitin ligase activity to promote poly-ubiquitination of E2/Cdc34. This ligase activity is required for complementation of death phenotype induced by ySAG disruption. Finally, chip profiling of the entire yeast genome revealed induction of several G1/S as well as G2/M checkpoint control genes upon SAG withdrawal. Thus, SAG appears to control cell cycle progression in yeast by promoting ubiquitination and degradation of cell cycle regulatory proteins. Oncogene (2000) 19, 2855 - 2866
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Affiliation(s)
- M Swaroop
- Department of Molecular Biology, Parke-Davis Pharmaceutical Research, Division of Warner-Lambert Company, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
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Cross F, Levine K. Regulation of the yeast cell cycle by transcription and proteolysis of cyclin-dependent kinase regulators. Kidney Int 1999. [DOI: 10.1046/j.1523-1755.1999.0560041185.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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Yang XW, Wynder C, Doughty ML, Heintz N. BAC-mediated gene-dosage analysis reveals a role for Zipro1 (Ru49/Zfp38) in progenitor cell proliferation in cerebellum and skin. Nat Genet 1999; 22:327-35. [PMID: 10431235 DOI: 10.1038/11896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 99] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Genetic analysis in mice has most commonly employed two general strategies: phenotypic screens for spontaneous or induced mutations and genotypic analysis using homologous recombination or gene trapping to produce deletion or insertion mutants. Here we use bacterial artificial chromosome (BAC)-mediated gene-dosage analysis in transgenic mice to reveal novel genetic functions that are not evident from conventional loss-of-function mutations. We demonstrate a role for the zinc-finger transcription factor Zipro1 (formerly Ru49 and Zfp38) in the proliferation of granule cell precursors in the developing cerebellum, and document the contribution of this process to the final stages of cerebellar morphogenesis. We also show that Zipro1 is expressed in skin, and increased Zipro1 dosage results in a hair-loss phenotype associated with increased epithelial cell proliferation and abnormal hair follicle development.
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Affiliation(s)
- X W Yang
- Laboratory of Molecular Biology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York 10021, USA
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