Stimulation of tetrahydrobiopterin synthesis by cytokines in human and in murine cells

Tetrahydrobiopterin modulates the behavioral neuroinflammatory response to an LPS challenge in mice

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is a necessary cofactor for the synthesis of monoamines from essential amino-acids, phenylalanine, tyrosine and tryptophan. The BH4 synthesis pathway is induced by inflammatory factors but highly regulated processes maintain levels in a physiological range. However, BH4 activity can be durably altered in inflammation-related pathologies, such as certain types of depression, potentially involving impairment of dopaminergic neurotransmission. The purpose of this study was to investigate the response of the brain BH4 pathway to the inflammatory stimulus induced by lipopolysaccharide (LPS) in mice. Brain expression of genes related to BH4 synthesis, levels of BH4, changes in L-aromatic amino acid precursors of monoamines and dopamine levels were determined. As secondary aim, the effect of acute BH4 supply under the inflammatory challenge was tested on these parameters and on the expression of inflammatory cytokines. Mice were also submitted to the sucrose preference test and to the open-field in order to asses hedonic and locomotor responses to LPS, in addition to their modulation by BH4 supply. The LPS challenge resulted in decreased striatal DA levels and increased Phenylalanine/Tyrosine ratio, suggesting reduced BH4 activity. BH4 supply was effective to increase striatal BH4 levels, to restore the LPS-induced decreased in DA levels in striatum and to dampen the LPS-induced expression of inflammatory cytokines. At the behavioral level, BH4 supply was able to restore the loss of locomotor response to amphetamine in the LPS treated mice, suggesting a modulation of the dopaminergic neurotransmission. These data suggest that BH4 can be considered as a potential add-on molecule, helping to maintain or restore dopaminergic neurotransmission in neuroinflammatory conditions..

Possible involvement of tetrahydrobiopterin in the disturbance of redox homeostasis in sepsis - Induced brain dysfunction

BACKGROUND AND AIM

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is an essential co-factor that regulates nitric oxide (NO) and reactive oxygen species (ROS) production by nitric oxide synthases (NOS). In this study, we evaluated the effects of sepsis on BH4 level and redox status in the brain by using the rat model of sepsis-induced by cecal ligation and puncture (CLP) and examined whether BH4 and/or acetyl-L-carnitine (ALC) could prevent the neuronal apoptosis and neurological changes induced by sepsis.

MATERIAL AND METHOD

Male albino rats were randomly and blindly divided into 8 groups: sham, sham + BH4, sham + ALC, sham +BH4+ ALC, CLP, CLP + BH4, CLP + ALC, and CLP+BH4+ ALC. We measured neurological indicators, brain levels of BH4, guanosine triphosphate cyclohydrolase (GTPCH), sepiapterin reductase (SR) and dihydropteridine reductase (DHPR) genes expression (Essential enzymes in BH4 biosynthesis and recycling pathways). We investigated also brain redox status and both endothelial and inducible NOS expressions.

RESULTS

Brain of septic rats demonstrated a reduced BH4 bioavailability, downregulation of BH4 synthetic enzymes, increased production of hydrogen peroxide and impaired antioxidant enzymes activities. Treatments with BH4 and/or ALC increased BH4 level, upregulated BH4 synthetic enzymes expressions, and attenuated oxidative-induced neuronal apoptosis.

CONCLUSION

Our results suggest that BH4 and/or ALC might protect the brain against oxidative stress induced neuronal apoptosis by restoring bioavailability of BH4 and upregulating of BH4 synthetic enzymes in the brain during sepsis.

Tetrahydrobiopterin availability, nitric oxide metabolism and glutathione status in the hph-1 mouse; implications for the pathogenesis and treatment of tetrahydrobiopterin deficiency states

Tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4) is an essential cofactor for all isoforms of nitric oxide synthase. While it is well established that BH4 deficiency states are associated with impairment of dopamine, serotonin and phenylalanine metabolism, less is known with regard to the effects of deficiency of the cofactor upon nitric oxide (NO) metabolism. In this study, we have evaluated the effects of partial BH4 deficiency upon (a) tissue availability of the antioxidant glutathione, (b) basal NO production and (c) NO generation following exposure to lipopolysaccharide (LPS), which is known to increase expression of the inducible form of nitric oxide synthase. Using the hph-1 mouse, which displays a partial BH4 deficiency owing to impaired activity of GTP cyclohydrolase, we report decreased levels of glutathione in brain and kidney and evidence for decreased basal generation of nitric oxide in the periphery (as judged by the plasma nitrate plus nitrite concentration). Following LPS administration, peripheral NO generation increases. However, the concentration of plasma nitrate plus nitrite achieved was significantly decreased in the hph-1 mouse. Furthermore, LPS administration caused loss of glutathione in both wild-type and hph-1 liver and kidney. It is concluded that cofactor replacement, sufficient to fully correct a cellular BH4 deficiency, may be of benefit to patients with inborn errors of BH4 metabolism.

Localization of sepiapterin reductase in the human brain

Sepiapterin reductase (SPR) is the enzyme that catalyzes the final step of the synthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin (BH4), the cofactor for phenylalanine hydroxylase, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), tryptophan hydroxylase, and nitric oxide synthase (NOS). Although SPR is essential for synthesizing BH4, the distribution of SPR in the human brain has not yet been clarified. In the present study, we purified recombinant human SPR from cDNA, raised an antibody against human SPR (hSPR), and examined the localization of SPR protein and SPR activity. Human brain homogenates from the substantia nigra (SN), caudate nucleus (CN), gray and white matters of the cerebral cortex (CTX), and dorsal and ventral parts of the medulla oblongata (MO) were subjected to Western blot analysis with anti-hSPR antibody or with anti-TH antibody. Whereas TH protein showed a restricted localization, being mainly detected in the SN and CN, SPR protein was detected in all brain regions examined. SPR activity was relatively high compared with the activity of GTP cyclohydrolase I (GCH), the rate-limiting biosynthetic enzyme of BH4, and was more widely distributed than GCH activity. Immunohistochemistry revealed SPR immunoreactivity in pyramidal neurons in the cerebral CTX, in a small number of striatal neurons, and in neurons of the hypothalamic and brain stem monoaminergic fields and olivary nucleus. Double-staining immunohistochemistry showed that TH and SPR were colocalized in the SN dopamine neurons. Localization of SPR immunoreactive neurons corresponded to monoamine or NOS neuronal fields, and also to the areas where no monoamine or NOS neurons were located. The results indicate that there might be a BH4 biosynthetic pathway where GCH is not involved and that SPR might have some yet unidentified function(s) in addition to BH4 biosynthesis.

Inducible nitric-oxide synthase and nitric oxide production in human fetal astrocytes and microglia. A kinetic analysis

The understanding of the induction and regulation of inducible nitric-oxide synthase (iNOS) in human cells may be important in developing therapeutic interventions for inflammatory diseases. In the present study, we not only demonstrated that human fetal mixed glial cultures, as well as enriched microglial cultures, synthesize iNOS and nitric oxide (NO) in response to cytokine stimulation, but also assessed the kinetics of iNOS and NO synthesis in human fetal mixed glial cultures. The iNOS mRNA was expressed within 2 h after stimulation and decreased to base line by 2 days. Significant levels of iNOS protein appeared within 24 h after stimulation and remained elevated during the culture period. A dramatic increase in NO production and NO-mediated events, such as the induction of cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP), NADPH diaphorase activity, and nitrotyrosine occurred 3 days after stimulation, a delay of 48 h from the time of the first expression of iNOS enzyme. This delay of NO production was altered by the addition of tetrahydrobiopterin, but not by the addition of L-arginine, heme, flavin adenine dinucleotide (FAD), flavin mononucleotide (FMN), or NADPH. These findings suggest that a post-translational regulatory event might be involved in iNOS-mediated NO production in human glia.