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Zhang B, Chi L. Chondroitin Sulfate/Dermatan Sulfate-Protein Interactions and Their Biological Functions in Human Diseases: Implications and Analytical Tools. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:693563. [PMID: 34422817 PMCID: PMC8377502 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.693563] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/11/2021] [Accepted: 07/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/12/2023] Open
Abstract
Chondroitin sulfate (CS) and dermatan sulfate (DS) are linear anionic polysaccharides that are widely present on the cell surface and in the cell matrix and connective tissue. CS and DS chains are usually attached to core proteins and are present in the form of proteoglycans (PGs). They not only are important structural substances but also bind to a variety of cytokines, growth factors, cell surface receptors, adhesion molecules, enzymes and fibrillary glycoproteins to execute series of important biological functions. CS and DS exhibit variable sulfation patterns and different sequence arrangements, and their molecular weights also vary within a large range, increasing the structural complexity and diversity of CS/DS. The structure-function relationship of CS/DS PGs directly and indirectly involves them in a variety of physiological and pathological processes. Accumulating evidence suggests that CS/DS serves as an important cofactor for many cell behaviors. Understanding the molecular basis of these interactions helps to elucidate the occurrence and development of various diseases and the development of new therapeutic approaches. The present article reviews the physiological and pathological processes in which CS and DS participate through their interactions with different proteins. Moreover, classic and emerging glycosaminoglycan (GAG)-protein interaction analysis tools and their applications in CS/DS-protein characterization are also discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Zhang
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lianli Chi
- National Glycoengineering Research Center, Shandong University, Qingdao, China
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Dou H, Song A, Jia S, Zhang L. Heparinoids Danaparoid and Sulodexide as clinically used drugs. PROGRESS IN MOLECULAR BIOLOGY AND TRANSLATIONAL SCIENCE 2019; 163:55-74. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.pmbts.2019.02.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Nahain AA, Ignjatovic V, Monagle P, Tsanaktsidis J, Ferro V. Heparin mimetics with anticoagulant activity. Med Res Rev 2018; 38:1582-1613. [PMID: 29446104 DOI: 10.1002/med.21489] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2017] [Revised: 12/16/2017] [Accepted: 01/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Heparin, a sulfated polysaccharide belonging to the glycosaminoglycan family, has been widely used as an anticoagulant drug for decades and remains the most commonly used parenteral anticoagulant in adults and children. However, heparin has important clinical limitations and is derived from animal sources which pose significant safety and supply problems. The ever growing shortage of the raw material for heparin manufacturing may become a very significant issue in the future. These global limitations have prompted much research, especially following the recent well-publicized contamination scandal, into the development of alternative anticoagulants derived from non-animal and/or totally synthetic sources that mimic the structural features and properties of heparin. Such compounds, termed heparin mimetics, are also needed as anticoagulant materials for use in biomedical applications (e.g., stents, grafts, implants etc.). This review encompasses the development of heparin mimetics of various structural classes, including synthetic polymers and non-carbohydrate small molecules as well as sulfated oligo- and polysaccharides, and fondaparinux derivatives and conjugates, with a focus on developments in the past 10 years.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdullah Al Nahain
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Vera Ignjatovic
- Haematology Research, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - Paul Monagle
- Haematology Research, Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Paediatrics, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia.,Department of Clinical Haematology, Royal Children's Hospital, Parkville, Victoria, Australia
| | - John Tsanaktsidis
- CSIRO Materials Science and Engineering, Clayton South, Victoria, Australia
| | - Vito Ferro
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Biosciences, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
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Karuturi R, Al-Horani RA, Mehta SC, Gailani D, Desai UR. Discovery of allosteric modulators of factor XIa by targeting hydrophobic domains adjacent to its heparin-binding site. J Med Chem 2013; 56:2415-28. [PMID: 23451707 DOI: 10.1021/jm301757v] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
To discover promising sulfated allosteric modulators (SAMs) of glycosaminoglycan-binding proteins (GBPs), such as human factor XIa (FXIa), we screened a library of 26 synthetic, sulfated quinazolin-4(3H)-ones (QAOs) resulting in the identification of six molecules that reduced the Vmax of substrate hydrolysis without influencing the KM. Mutagenesis of residues of the heparin-binding site (HBS) of FXIa introduced a nearly 5-fold loss in inhibition potency supporting recognition of an allosteric site. Fluorescence studies showed a sigmoidal binding profile indicating highly cooperative binding. Competition with a positively charged, heparin-binding polymer did not fully nullify inhibition suggesting importance of hydrophobic forces to binding. This discovery suggests the operation of a dual-element recognition process, which relies on an initial Coulombic attraction of anionic SAMs to the cationic HBS of FXIa that forms a locked complex through tight interaction with an adjacent hydrophobic patch. The dual-element strategy may be widely applicable for discovering SAMs of other GBPs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rajesh Karuturi
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298, USA
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Sidhu PS, Mosier PD, Zhou Q, Desai UR. On scaffold hopping: challenges in the discovery of sulfated small molecules as mimetics of glycosaminoglycans. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2012; 23:355-9. [PMID: 23164711 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2012.10.079] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2012] [Revised: 10/04/2012] [Accepted: 10/15/2012] [Indexed: 01/25/2023]
Abstract
The design of sulfated, small, nonsaccharide molecules as modulators of proteins is still in its infancy as standard drug discovery tools such as library of diverse sulfated molecules and in silico docking and scoring protocol have not been firmly established. Databases, such as ZINC, contain too few sulfate-containing nonsaccharide molecules, which severely limits the identification of new hits. Lack of a generally applicable protocol for scaffold hopping limits the development of sulfated small molecules as synthetic mimetics of the highly sulfated glycosaminoglycans. We explored a sequential ligand-based (LBVS) and structure-based virtual screening (SBVS) approach starting from our initial discovery of monosulfated benzofurans to discover alternative scaffolds as allosteric modulators of thrombin, a key coagulation enzyme. Screening the ZINC database containing nearly 1 million nonsulfated small molecules using a pharmacophore developed from the parent sulfated benzofurans followed by a genetic algorithm-based dual-filter docking and scoring screening identified a group of 10 promising hits, of which three top-scoring hits were synthesized. Each was found to selectively inhibit human alpha-thrombin suggesting the possibility of this approach for scaffold hopping. Michaelis-Menten kinetics showed allosteric inhibition mechanism for the best molecule and human plasma studies confirmed good anticoagulation potential as expected. Our simple sequential LBVS and SBVS approach is likely to be useful as a general strategy for identification of sulfated small molecules hits as modulators of glycosaminoglycan-protein interactions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preetpal S Sidhu
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA 23219, United States
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Raghuraman A, Mosier PD, Desai UR. Understanding Dermatan Sulfate-Heparin Cofactor II Interaction through Virtual Library Screening. ACS Med Chem Lett 2010; 1:281-285. [PMID: 20835364 PMCID: PMC2936258 DOI: 10.1021/ml100048y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2010] [Accepted: 06/06/2010] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
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Dermatan sulfate, an important member of the glycosaminoglycan family, interacts with heparin cofactor II, a member of the serpin family of proteins, to modulate antithrombotic response. Yet, the nature of this interaction remains poorly understood at a molecular level. We report the genetic algorithm-based combinatorial virtual library screening study of a natural, high-affinity dermatan sulfate hexasaccharide with heparin cofactor II. Of the 192 topologies possible for the hexasaccharide, only 16 satisfied the “high-specificity” criteria used in computational study. Of these, 13 topologies were predicted to bind in the heparin-binding site of heparin cofactor II at a ∼60° angle to helix D, a novel binding mode. This new binding geometry satisfies all known solution and mutagenesis data and supports thrombin ternary complexation through a template mechanism. The study is expected to facilitate the design of allosteric agonists of heparin cofactor II as antithrombotic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Arjun Raghuraman
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0540
| | - Philip D. Mosier
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0540
| | - Umesh R. Desai
- Department of Medicinal Chemistry and Institute for Structural Biology and Drug Discovery, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, Virginia 23298-0540
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Suwan J, Zhang Z, Li B, Vongchan P, Meepowpan P, Zhang F, Mousa SA, Mousa S, Premanode B, Kongtawelert P, Linhardt RJ. Sulfonation of papain-treated chitosan and its mechanism for anticoagulant activity. Carbohydr Res 2009; 344:1190-6. [PMID: 19476923 DOI: 10.1016/j.carres.2009.04.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2008] [Revised: 04/10/2009] [Accepted: 04/15/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The novel low-molecular-weight chitosan polysulfate (MW 5120-26,200 Da) was prepared using the depolymerization of chitosan with papain (EC. 3.4.22.2). The sulfonation of depolymerized products was performed using chlorosulfonic acid in N,N-dimethylformamide under semi-heterogeneous conditions. The structures of the products were characterized by FTIR, (13)C NMR, and (1)H NMR (1D, 2D NMR) spectroscopy. The present study sheds light on the mechanism of anticoagulant activity of chitosan polysulfate. Anticoagulant activity was investigated by an activated partial thromboplastin assay, a thrombin time assay, a prothrombin time assay, and thrombelastography. Surface plasmon resonance also provided valuable data for understanding the relationship between the molecular binding of sulfated chitosan to two important blood clotting regulators, antithrombin III and heparin cofactor II. These results show that the principal mechanism by which this chitosan polysulfate exhibits anticoagulant activity is mediated through heparin cofactor II and is dependent on polysaccharide molecular weight.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jiraporn Suwan
- Thailand Excellence Center for Tissue Engineering, Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200, Thailand
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Ciaccia AV, Willemze AJ, Church FC. Heparin promotes proteolytic inactivation by thrombin of a reactive site mutant (L444R) of recombinant heparin cofactor II. J Biol Chem 1997; 272:888-93. [PMID: 8995378 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.272.2.888] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
A heparin cofactor II (HCII) mutant with an Arg substituted for Leu444 at the P1 position (L444R-rHCII) was previously found to have altered proteinase specificity (Derechin, V. M., Blinder, M. A., and Tollefsen, D. M. (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 5623-5628). The present study characterizes the effect of glycosaminoglycans on the substrate versus inhibitor activity of L444R-rHCII. Heparin increased the stoichiometry of inhibition of L444R-rHCII with alpha-thrombin (compared with minus glycosaminoglycan) but decreased it with R93A,R97A,R101A-thrombin, a mutant thrombin that does not bind glycosaminoglycans. Dermatan sulfate decreased the stoichiometry of inhibition of L444R-rHCII with both proteinases. SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis showed no proteolysis of L444R-rHCII when incubated with R93A,R97A,R101A-thrombin in the absence or the presence of glycosaminoglycan or with alpha-thrombin and dermatan sulfate. In contrast, greater than 75% of the L444R-rHCII was converted to a lower molecular weight form when incubated with alpha-thrombin/heparin. A time course of alpha-thrombin inhibition by L444R-rHCII/heparin showed a rapid but transient inhibition with approximately 80% of the alpha-thrombin activity being regained after 6 h of incubation. In contrast, all other combinations of inhibitor, proteinase, and glycosaminoglycan resulted in complete and sustained inhibition of the proteinase. Heparin fragments of 8-20 polysaccharides in length rapidly accelerated L444R-rHCII inhibition of both alpha-thrombin and R93A,R97A,R101A-thrombin. After extended incubations, R93A,R97A,R101A-thrombin was completely inhibited by L444R-rHCII with all the heparin fragments, but approximately 30-50% of alpha-thrombin activity remained with fragments long enough to bridge HCII-thrombin. These results collectively indicate that ternary complex formation, mediated by heparin, increases L444R-rHCII inactivation by alpha-thrombin.
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Affiliation(s)
- A V Ciaccia
- Department of Pharmacology, The University of North Carolina School of Medicine, Chapel Hill 27599, USA
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Abstract
1. Dermatan sulfate is a linear, sulfated polysaccharide and is a glycosaminoglycan component of several important proteoglycans. This minireview discusses the biosynthesis, structure and biological function of dermatan sulfate proteoglycans. 2. Dermatan sulfate and its derivatives are being investigated as a new class of anticoagulant and antithrombotic agents. 3. The preparation, chemistry and structure-activity relationship of dermatan sulfate is described. 4. Dermatan sulfate, low molecular weight dermatan sulfate and glycosaminoglycan mixtures containing dermatan sulfate have been used clinically. 5. The future prospects of these agents and other new, potentially useful dermatan sulfate based therapeutics are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- R J Linhardt
- Division of Medicinal and Natural Products Chemistry, College of Pharmacy, University of Iowa, Iowa City 52242, USA
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Phillips J, Cooper S, Potter E, Church F. Mutagenesis of recombinant protein C inhibitor reactive site residues alters target proteinase specificity. J Biol Chem 1994. [DOI: 10.1016/s0021-9258(19)89446-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/22/2022] Open
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Abstract
Degradation of tissue proteins is controlled by multiple means. These include regulation of the synthesis of proteinases, activation of the zymogen forms, the activity of the mature proteinase, and the degradation of these enzymes and the substrates. Mature proteinases can be controlled by pH, calcium ions, ATP, lipids and the formation of complexes with other proteinases, proteoglycans, and inhibitors.
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Affiliation(s)
- S S Twining
- Department of Biochemistry, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee 53226
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Mascellani G, Liverani L, Bianchini P, Parma B, Torri G, Bisio A, Guerrini M, Casu B. Structure and contribution to the heparin cofactor II-mediated inhibition of thrombin of naturally oversulphated sequences of dermatan sulphate. Biochem J 1993; 296 ( Pt 3):639-48. [PMID: 8280062 PMCID: PMC1137745 DOI: 10.1042/bj2960639] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Dermatan sulphate (DS) obtained from bovine and pig mucosa and pig skin, and charge-enriched fractions of a selected DS preparation, were characterized in terms of charge density, M(r) and disaccharide composition of chondroitin ABC lyase digests, and by 13C-n.m.r. spectroscopy. Besides the major IdoA-GalNAc4SO3 sequences, all DS preparations contain about 10% disulphated disaccharide sequences (mostly IdoA2SO3-GalNAc4SO3, with minor amounts of IdoA-GalNAc4,6SO3). DS fragments (prepared by radical-catalysed depolymerization of DS and retaining the internal structure of the parent polysaccharide) as well as Smith degraded fragments [SD-DS, obtained by controlled degradation of periodate-oxidized and borohydride-reduced DS (RO-DS)] with the general structure GalNAc4SO3(IdoA2SO3-GalNAc4SO3)n-R (where R is the remnant of a glycol-split uronic acid, and n = 2-3 and 3-4) were characterized by one- and two-dimensional 1H-n.m.r., 13C-n.m.r. and disaccharide composition analysis. In accordance with previous findings [Maimone and Tollefsen (1990) J. Biol. Chem. 265, 18263-18271], only fragments with n > or = 3 significantly enhance the heparin cofactor II-mediated inhibition of thrombin. In natural DS preparations and their fractions, this activity (as well as the antithrombotic activity in an animal model) appears to require IdoA2SO3-containing sequences. The heparin cofactor II activity of DS, RO-DS and SD-DS fragments decreases with decreasing M(r). However, RO-DS fragments are more active than DS fragments of similar M(r), probably because of the extra flexibility endowed by glycol-split IdoA residues.
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Affiliation(s)
- G Mascellani
- Opocrin S.p.A. Research and Development Laboratories, Corlo di Formigine, Modena, Italy
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