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Wang F, Ma W, Fan D, Hu J, An X, Wang Z. The biochemistry of melanogenesis: an insight into the function and mechanism of melanogenesis-related proteins. Front Mol Biosci 2024; 11:1440187. [PMID: 39228912 PMCID: PMC11368874 DOI: 10.3389/fmolb.2024.1440187] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/29/2024] [Accepted: 07/22/2024] [Indexed: 09/05/2024] Open
Abstract
Melanin is an amino acid derivative produced by melanocyte through a series of enzymatic reactions using tyrosinase as substrate. Human skin and hair color is also closely related to melanin, so understanding the mechanisms and proteins that produce melanin is very important. There are many proteins involved in the process of melanin expression, For example, proteins involved in melanin formation such as p53, HNF-1α (Hepatocyte nuclear factor 1α), SOX10 (Sry-related HMg-Box gene 10) and pax3 (paired box gene 3), MC1R(Melanocortin 1 Receptor), MITF (Microphthalmia-associated transcription factor), TYR (tyrosinase), TYRP1 (tyrosinase-related protein-1), TYRP2 (tyrosinase-related protein-2), and can be regulated by changing their content to control the production rate of melanin. Others, such as OA1 (ocular albinism type 1), Par-2 (protease-activated receptor 2) and Mlph (Melanophilin), have been found to control the transfer rate of melanosomes from melanocytes to keratinocytes, and regulate the amount of human epidermal melanin to control the depth of human skin color. In addition to the above proteins, there are other protein families also involved in the process of melanin expression, such as BLOC, Rab and Rho. This article reviews the origin of melanocytes, the related proteins affecting melanin and the basic causes of related gene mutations. In addition, we also summarized the active ingredients of 5 popular whitening cosmetics and their mechanisms of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Feifei Wang
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Yunnan Botanee Bio-Technology Group Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Shanghai Jiyan Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Wenjing Ma
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Shanghai Jiyan Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Dongjie Fan
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Shanghai Jiyan Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Jing Hu
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Shanghai Jiyan Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Xiaohong An
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Yunnan Botanee Bio-Technology Group Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Traditional Chinese Pharmacy, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, China
- Shanghai Jiyan Bio-Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China
| | - Zuding Wang
- Yunnan Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory, Yunnan Yunke Characteristic Plant Extraction Laboratory Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
- Yunnan Botanee Bio-Technology Group Co., Ltd., Kunming, China
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Lin Y, Wang H, Xu J, Huang Y, Gong W, Wang Q, Huang Z, Xie S, Lin J. High spatio-temporal resolution measurement of A 1 R and A 2A R interactions combined with Iem-spFRET and E-FRET methods. JOURNAL OF BIOPHOTONICS 2021; 14:e202100172. [PMID: 34328277 DOI: 10.1002/jbio.202100172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2021] [Revised: 07/17/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
A1 R-A2A R heterodimers regulate striatal glutamatergic neurotransmission. However, few researches about kinetics have been reported. Here, we combined Iem-spFRET and E-FRET to investigate the kinetics of A1 R and A2A R interaction. Iem-spFRET obtains the energy transfer efficiency of the whole cell. E-FRET gets energy transfer efficiency with high spatial resolution, whereas, it was prone to biases because background was easily selected due to manual operation. To study the interaction with high spatio-temporal resolution, Iem-spFRET was used to correct the deviation of E-FRET. In this paper, A1 R and A2A R interaction was monitored, and the changes of FRET efficiency of the whole or/and partial cell membrane were described. The results showed that activation of A1 R or A2A R leads to rapid aggregation, inhibition of A1 R or A2A R leads to slow segregation, and the interaction is reversible. These results demonstrated that combination of Iem-spFRET and E-FRET could measure A1 R and A2A R interaction with high spatio-temporal resolution.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yating Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Haoyu Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Jianshu Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Yiming Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Wei Gong
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Qiwen Wang
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Zufang Huang
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Shusen Xie
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Juqiang Lin
- MOE Key Laboratory of OptoElectronic Science and Technology for Medicine and Fujian Provincial Key Laboratory for Photonics Technology, Fujian Normal University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
- School of Opto-electronic and Communication Engineering, Xiamen University of Technology, Xiamen, Fujian, China
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Mirza M, Vainshtein A, DiRonza A, Chandrachud U, Haslett LJ, Palmieri M, Storch S, Groh J, Dobzinski N, Napolitano G, Schmidtke C, Kerkovich DM. The CLN3 gene and protein: What we know. Mol Genet Genomic Med 2019; 7:e859. [PMID: 31568712 PMCID: PMC6900386 DOI: 10.1002/mgg3.859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2018] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 05/31/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Background One of the most important steps taken by Beyond Batten Disease Foundation in our quest to cure juvenile Batten (CLN3) disease is to understand the State of the Science. We believe that a strong understanding of where we are in our experimental understanding of the CLN3 gene, its regulation, gene product, protein structure, tissue distribution, biomarker use, and pathological responses to its deficiency, lays the groundwork for determining therapeutic action plans. Objectives To present an unbiased comprehensive reference tool of the experimental understanding of the CLN3 gene and gene product of the same name. Methods BBDF compiled all of the available CLN3 gene and protein data from biological databases, repositories of federally and privately funded projects, patent and trademark offices, science and technology journals, industrial drug and pipeline reports as well as clinical trial reports and with painstaking precision, validated the information together with experts in Batten disease, lysosomal storage disease, lysosome/endosome biology. Results The finished product is an indexed review of the CLN3 gene and protein which is not limited in page size or number of references, references all available primary experiments, and does not draw conclusions for the reader. Conclusions Revisiting the experimental history of a target gene and its product ensures that inaccuracies and contradictions come to light, long‐held beliefs and assumptions continue to be challenged, and information that was previously deemed inconsequential gets a second look. Compiling the information into one manuscript with all appropriate primary references provides quick clues to which studies have been completed under which conditions and what information has been reported. This compendium does not seek to replace original articles or subtopic reviews but provides an historical roadmap to completed works.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Alberto DiRonza
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Uma Chandrachud
- Center for Genomic Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital/Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts
| | | | - Michela Palmieri
- Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, Texas.,Jan and Dan Duncan Neurological Research Institute at Texas Children's Hospital, Houston, Texas
| | - Stephan Storch
- Biochemistry, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
| | - Janos Groh
- Neurology, University Hospital Wuerzburg, Wuerzburg, Germany
| | - Niv Dobzinski
- Biochemistry and Biophysics, UCSF School of Medicine, San Francisco, California
| | | | - Carolin Schmidtke
- Biochemistry, University Medical Center Hamburg-Eppendorf, Hamburg, Germany
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Bearer EL, Wu C. Herpes Simplex Virus, Alzheimer's Disease and a Possible Role for Rab GTPases. Front Cell Dev Biol 2019; 7:134. [PMID: 31448273 PMCID: PMC6692634 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2019.00134] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) is a common pathogen, infecting 85% of adults in the United States. After reaching the nucleus of the long-lived neuron, HSV may enter latency to persist throughout the life span. Re-activation of latent herpesviruses is associated with progressive cognitive impairment and Alzheimer's disease (AD). As an enveloped DNA virus, HSV exploits cellular membrane systems for its life cycle, and thereby comes in contact with the Rab family of GTPases, master regulators of intracellular membrane dynamics. Knock-down and overexpression of specific Rabs reduce HSV production. Disheveled membrane compartments could lead to AD because membrane sorting and trafficking are crucial for synaptic vesicle formation, neuronal survival signaling and Abeta production. Amyloid precursor protein (APP), a transmembrane glycoprotein, is the parent of Abeta, the major component of senile plaques in AD. Up-regulation of APP expression due to HSV is significant since excess APP interferes with Rab5 endocytic trafficking in neurons. Here, we show that purified PC12-cell endosomes transport both anterograde and retrograde when injected into the squid giant axon at rates similar to isolated HSV. Intracellular HSV co-fractionates with these endosomes, contains APP, Rab5 and TrkA, and displays a second membrane. HSV infected PC12 cells up-regulate APP expression. Whether interference with Rabs has a specific effect on HSV or indirectly affects membrane compartment dynamics co-opted by virus needs further study. Ultimately Rabs, their effectors or their membrane-binding partners may serve as handles to reduce the impact of viral re-activation on cognitive function, or even as more general-purpose anti-microbial therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elaine L. Bearer
- Department of Pathology, University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM, United States
| | - Chengbiao Wu
- Department of Neurosciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA, United States
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Abstract
Small, monomeric guanine triphosphate hydrolases (GTPases) are ubiquitous cellular integrators of signaling. A signal activates the GTPase, which then binds to an effector molecule to relay a signal inside the cell. The GTPase effector trap flow cytometry assay (G-Trap) utilizes bead-based protein immobilization and dual-color flow cytometry to rapidly and quantitatively measure GTPase activity status in cell or tissue lysates. Beginning with commercial cytoplex bead sets that are color-coded with graded fluorescence intensities of a red (700 nm) wavelength, the bead sets are derivatized to display glutathione on the surface through a detailed protocol described here. A different glutathione-S-transferase-effector protein (GST-effector protein) can then be attached to the surface of each set. For the assay, users can incubate bead sets individually or in a multiplex format with lysates for rapid, selective capture of active, GTP-bound GTPases from a single sample. After that, flow cytometry is used to identify the bead-borne GTPase based on red bead intensity, and the amount of active GTPase per bead is detected using monoclonal antibodies conjugated to a green fluorophore or via labeled secondary antibodies. Three examples are provided to illustrate the efficacy of the effector-functionalized beads for measuring the activation of at least five GTPases in a single lysate from fewer than 50,000 cells.
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Liu Z, O’Rourke J. Expediting Antibody Discovery with a Cell and Bead Multiplexed Competition Assay. SLAS DISCOVERY 2018; 23:667-675. [DOI: 10.1177/2472555218776308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
With advances in molecular engineering and humanization, monoclonal antibodies are one of the fastest-growing classes of biopharmaceuticals. During antibody discovery, antibody from hybridoma or primary B-cell supernatants is screened for the desired binding characteristics, and secondary screens measure antibody function and concentration, identify immunoglobulin G (IgG) isotype, and assess cell health. In order to expedite the antibody discovery process, we developed a high-throughput, multiplexed cell and bead-based competition assay that identifies and quantitates mouse IgG isotypes and assesses cell health. No differences in assay performance were observed between single and multiplex formats. The linear range of the assay was from 0.5 to 50 µg/mL, and washing was not required, decreasing assay time and variability. Slight modifications to the protocol allowed quantification of dilute antibody supernatants (0.1–5 µg/mL). Using hybridoma cultures, we showed that cell viability measurements in the assay did not interfere with the bead-based IgG measurements. The assay described here is a simple mix-and-read, no-dilution screen that can reduce the time to antibody cloning and production. The high-content data can differentiate monoclonal and polyclonal wells, determine IgG quantity for downstream functional assays, provide isotype information, and monitor cell proliferation and viability.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhaoping Liu
- Intellicyt, A Sartorius Brand, Albuquerque, NM, USA
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Bingham KN, Lee MD, Rawlings JS. The Use of Flow Cytometry to Assess the State of Chromatin in T Cells. J Vis Exp 2015:e53533. [PMID: 26709948 PMCID: PMC4694037 DOI: 10.3791/53533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
During a proper immune response, quiescent T cells become activated upon antigen presentation to their antigen-specific T cell receptor. This leads to clonal proliferation of only those T cells that bear a receptor that recognizes the antigen. Chromatin decondensation is a hallmark of T cell activation and is required for T cells to acquire the ability to proliferate after antigen engagement. This change in chromatin condensation can be detected using antibodies raised against histone proteins. These antibodies cannot bind to their epitopes in naïve T cells as well as they can in activated T cells. We describe how to simultaneously stain T cell-specific surface markers, track viability with a fixable dead cell stain, and measure chromatin status via intracellular staining of Histone H3 proteins. Stained cells are analyzed by flow cytometry and chromatin condensation status is measured as the mean fluorescence intensity (MFI) of the Histone H3 stain. Chromatin decondensation during T cell activation is demonstrated as an increase in the MFI
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