1
|
Song BPC, Ch'ng ACW, Lim TS. Review of phage display: A jack-of-all-trades and master of most biomolecule display. Int J Biol Macromol 2024; 256:128455. [PMID: 38013083 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2023.128455] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 11/24/2023] [Accepted: 11/24/2023] [Indexed: 11/29/2023]
Abstract
Phage display was first described by George P. Smith when it was shown that virus particles were capable of presenting foreign proteins on their surface. The technology has paved the way for the evolution of various biomolecules presentation and diverse selection strategies. This unique feature has been applied as a versatile platform for numerous applications in drug discovery, protein engineering, diagnostics, and vaccine development. Over the decades, the limits of biomolecules displayed on phage particles have expanded from peptides to proteomes and even alternative scaffolds. This has allowed phage display to be viewed as a versatile display platform to accommodate various biomolecules ranging from small peptides to larger proteomes which has significantly impacted advancements in the biomedical industry. This review will explore the vast array of biomolecules that have been successfully employed in phage display technology in biomedical research.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Brenda Pei Chui Song
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Angela Chiew Wen Ch'ng
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia
| | - Theam Soon Lim
- Institute for Research in Molecular Medicine, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia; Analytical Biochemistry Research Centre, Universiti Sains Malaysia, 11800 Penang, Malaysia.
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Heine PA, Ballmann R, Thevarajah P, Russo G, Moreira GMSG, Hust M. Biomarker Discovery by ORFeome Phage Display. Methods Mol Biol 2023; 2702:543-561. [PMID: 37679638 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-0716-3381-6_27] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/09/2023]
Abstract
Phage display is an efficient and robust method for protein-protein interaction studies. Although it is mostly used for antibody generation, it can be also utilized for the discovery of immunogenic proteins that could be used as biomarkers. Through this technique, a genome or metagenome is fragmented and cloned into a phagemid vector. The resulting protein fragments from this genetic material are displayed on M13 phage surface, while the corresponding gene fragments are packaged. This packaging process uses the pIII deficient helperphage, called Hyperphage (M13KO7 ΔpIII), so open reading frames (ORFs) are enriched in these libraries, giving the name to this method: ORFeome phage display. After conducting a selection procedure, called "bio-panning," relevant immunogenic peptides or protein fragments are selected using purified antibodies or serum samples, and can be used as potential biomarkers. As ORFeome phage display is an in vitro method, only the DNA or cDNA of the species of interest is needed. Therefore, this approach is also suitable for organisms that are hard to cultivate, or metagenomic samples, for example. An additional advantage is that the biomarker discovery is not limited to surface proteins due to the presentation of virtually every kind of peptide or protein fragment encoded by the ORFeome on the phage surface. At last, the selected biomarkers can be the start for the development of diagnostic assays, vaccines, or protein interaction studies.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Philip Alexander Heine
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Rico Ballmann
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Praveen Thevarajah
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Giulio Russo
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Gustavo Marçal Schmidt Garcia Moreira
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany
- Tacalyx GmbH, Sector for Antibody and Protein Biochemistry, Berlin, Germany
| | - Michael Hust
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Departments Biotechnology and Medical Biotechnology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Braunschweig, Germany.
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Ballmann R, Hotop SK, Bertoglio F, Steinke S, Heine PA, Chaudhry MZ, Jahn D, Pucker B, Baldanti F, Piralla A, Schubert M, Čičin-Šain L, Brönstrup M, Hust M, Dübel S. ORFeome Phage Display Reveals a Major Immunogenic Epitope on the S2 Subdomain of SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein. Viruses 2022; 14:1326. [PMID: 35746797 PMCID: PMC9229677 DOI: 10.3390/v14061326] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2022] [Revised: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 06/15/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of antibody therapies against SARS-CoV-2 remains a challenging task during the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic. All approved therapeutic antibodies are directed against the receptor binding domain (RBD) of the spike, and therefore lose neutralization efficacy against emerging SARS-CoV-2 variants, which frequently mutate in the RBD region. Previously, phage display has been used to identify epitopes of antibody responses against several diseases. Such epitopes have been applied to design vaccines or neutralize antibodies. Here, we constructed an ORFeome phage display library for the SARS-CoV-2 genome. Open reading frames (ORFs) representing the SARS-CoV-2 genome were displayed on the surface of phage particles in order to identify enriched immunogenic epitopes from COVID-19 patients. Library quality was assessed by both NGS and epitope mapping of a monoclonal antibody with a known binding site. The most prominent epitope captured represented parts of the fusion peptide (FP) of the spike. It is associated with the cell entry mechanism of SARS-CoV-2 into the host cell; the serine protease TMPRSS2 cleaves the spike within this sequence. Blocking this mechanism could be a potential target for non-RBD binding therapeutic anti-SARS-CoV-2 antibodies. As mutations within the FP amino acid sequence have been rather rare among SARS-CoV-2 variants so far, this may provide an advantage in the fight against future virus variants.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Rico Ballmann
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Sven-Kevin Hotop
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (S.-K.H.); (M.Z.C.); (L.Č.-Š.); (M.B.)
| | - Federico Bertoglio
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Stephan Steinke
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Philip Alexander Heine
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - M. Zeeshan Chaudhry
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (S.-K.H.); (M.Z.C.); (L.Č.-Š.); (M.B.)
| | - Dieter Jahn
- Institut für Mikrobiologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr. 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Boas Pucker
- Institute of Plant Biology, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Humboldtstr 1, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany;
| | - Fausto Baldanti
- Department of Clinical, Surgical, Diagnostic and Pediatric Sciences, University of Pavia, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Antonio Piralla
- Molecular Virology Unit, Microbiology and Virology Department, IRCCS Fondazione Policlinico, 27100 Pavia, Italy;
| | - Maren Schubert
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Luka Čičin-Šain
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (S.-K.H.); (M.Z.C.); (L.Č.-Š.); (M.B.)
| | - Mark Brönstrup
- Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Inhoffenstr. 7, 38124 Braunschweig, Germany; (S.-K.H.); (M.Z.C.); (L.Č.-Š.); (M.B.)
| | - Michael Hust
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| | - Stefan Dübel
- Institut für Biochemie, Biotechnologie und Bioinformatik, Abteilung Biotechnologie, Technische Universität Braunschweig, Spielmannstr 7, 38106 Braunschweig, Germany; (F.B.); (S.S.); (P.A.H.); (M.S.)
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Puccio S, Grillo G, Consiglio A, Soluri MF, Sblattero D, Cotella D, Santoro C, Liuni S, Bellis GD, Lugli E, Peano C, Licciulli F. InteractomeSeq: a web server for the identification and profiling of domains and epitopes from phage display and next generation sequencing data. Nucleic Acids Res 2020; 48:W200-W207. [PMID: 32402076 PMCID: PMC7319578 DOI: 10.1093/nar/gkaa363] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2020] [Revised: 04/16/2020] [Accepted: 05/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
High-Throughput Sequencing technologies are transforming many research fields, including the analysis of phage display libraries. The phage display technology coupled with deep sequencing was introduced more than a decade ago and holds the potential to circumvent the traditional laborious picking and testing of individual phage rescued clones. However, from a bioinformatics point of view, the analysis of this kind of data was always performed by adapting tools designed for other purposes, thus not considering the noise background typical of the 'interactome sequencing' approach and the heterogeneity of the data. InteractomeSeq is a web server allowing data analysis of protein domains ('domainome') or epitopes ('epitome') from either Eukaryotic or Prokaryotic genomic phage libraries generated and selected by following an Interactome sequencing approach. InteractomeSeq allows users to upload raw sequencing data and to obtain an accurate characterization of domainome/epitome profiles after setting the parameters required to tune the analysis. The release of this tool is relevant for the scientific and clinical community, because InteractomeSeq will fill an existing gap in the field of large-scale biomarkers profiling, reverse vaccinology, and structural/functional studies, thus contributing essential information for gene annotation or antigen identification. InteractomeSeq is freely available at https://InteractomeSeq.ba.itb.cnr.it/.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Simone Puccio
- Laboratory of Translational Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, IRCCS, Rozzano (Milan), 20089, Italy
| | - Giorgio Grillo
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Bari 70100, Italy
| | - Arianna Consiglio
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Bari 70100, Italy
| | - Maria Felicia Soluri
- Department of Health Sciences & Center for TranslationalResearch on Autoimmune and Allergic Disease (CAAD), Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara 28100, Italy
| | - Daniele Sblattero
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Trieste, Trieste 34100, Italy
| | - Diego Cotella
- Department of Health Sciences & Center for TranslationalResearch on Autoimmune and Allergic Disease (CAAD), Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara 28100, Italy
| | - Claudio Santoro
- Department of Health Sciences & Center for TranslationalResearch on Autoimmune and Allergic Disease (CAAD), Università del Piemonte Orientale, Novara 28100, Italy
| | - Sabino Liuni
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Bari 70100, Italy
| | - Gianluca De Bellis
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Segrate (Milan) 20090, Italy
| | - Enrico Lugli
- Laboratory of Translational Immunology, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, IRCCS, Rozzano (Milan), 20089, Italy.,Humanitas Flow Cytometry Core, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, IRCCS, Rozzano (Milan) 20089, Italy
| | - Clelia Peano
- Institute of Genetic and Biomedical Research, UoS Milan, National Research Council, Rozzano (Milan) 20089, Italy.,Genomic Unit, Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, IRCCS,Rozzano (Milan) 20089, Italy
| | - Flavio Licciulli
- Institute for Biomedical Technologies, National Research Council, Bari 70100, Italy
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex-enzyme 2, a new target for Listeria spp. detection identified using combined phage display technologies. Sci Rep 2020; 10:15267. [PMID: 32943681 PMCID: PMC7498459 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-72159-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/26/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Listeria comprises ubiquitous bacteria, commonly present in foods and food production facilities. In this study, three different phage display technologies were employed to discover targets, and to generate and characterize novel antibodies against Listeria: antibody display for biomarker discovery and antibody generation; ORFeome display for target identification; and single-gene display for epitope characterization. With this approach, pyruvate dehydrogenase complex—enzyme 2 (PDC-E2) was defined as a new detection target for Listeria, as confirmed by immunomagnetic separation-mass spectrometry (IMS-MS). Immunoblot and fluorescence microscopy showed that this protein is accessible on the bacterial cell surface of living cells. Recombinant PDC-E2 was produced in E. coli and used to generate 16 additional antibodies. The resulting set of 20 monoclonal scFv-Fc was tested in indirect ELISA against 17 Listeria and 16 non-Listeria species. Two of them provided 100% sensitivity (CI 82.35–100.0%) and specificity (CI 78.20–100.0%), confirming PDC-E2 as a suitable target for the detection of Listeria. The binding region of 18 of these antibodies was analyzed, revealing that ≈ 90% (16/18) bind to the lipoyl domains (LD) of the target. The novel target PDC-E2 and highly specific antibodies against it offer new opportunities to improve the detection of Listeria.
Collapse
|
6
|
Prechl J. Network Organization of Antibody Interactions in Sequence and Structure Space: the RADARS Model. Antibodies (Basel) 2020; 9:antib9020013. [PMID: 32384800 PMCID: PMC7345901 DOI: 10.3390/antib9020013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2020] [Accepted: 04/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Adaptive immunity in vertebrates is a complex self-organizing network of molecular interactions. While deep sequencing of the immune-receptor repertoire may reveal clonal relationships, functional interpretation of such data is hampered by the inherent limitations of converting sequence to structure to function. In this paper, a novel model of antibody interaction space and network, termed radial adjustment of system resolution, RAdial ADjustment of System Resolution (RADARS), is proposed. The model is based on the radial growth of interaction affinity of antibodies towards an infinity of directions in structure space, each direction corresponding to particular shapes of antigen epitopes. Levels of interaction affinity appear as free energy shells of the system, where hierarchical B-cell development and differentiation takes place. Equilibrium in this immunological thermodynamic system can be described by a power law distribution of antibody-free energies with an ideal network degree exponent of phi square, representing a scale-free fractal network of antibody interactions. Plasma cells are network hubs, memory B cells are nodes with intermediate degrees, and B1 cells function as nodes with minimal degree. Overall, the RADARS model implies that a finite number of antibody structures can interact with an infinite number of antigens by immunologically controlled adjustment of interaction energy distribution. Understanding quantitative network properties of the system should help the organization of sequence-derived predicted structural data.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- József Prechl
- Diagnosticum Zrt., 126. Attila u., 1047 Budapest, Hungary
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Restriction-Free Construction of a Phage-Presented Very Short Macrocyclic Peptide Library. Methods Mol Biol 2019. [PMID: 31625092 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4939-9853-1_6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
Abstract
Phage display is a commonly used technology for the screening of large clonal libraries of proteins and peptides. The construction of peptide libraries containing very short sequences, however, poses certain problems for conventional restriction-based cloning procedures, which are rooted in the necessity to purify restricted library oligos. Herein, we present an alternative cloning method especially suitable for such very short sequences of about only 21 base pairs resulting in a 60 bp insert. The employed restriction-free hot fusion cloning strategy allows for facile library construction bypassing the need for purification of the small oligo. The library includes one well-defined disulfide bridge rendering the displayed macrocyclic peptide sequences as attractive scaffolds for novel active principles.
Collapse
|
8
|
Ramli SR, Moreira GMSG, Zantow J, Goris MGA, Nguyen VK, Novoselova N, Pessler F, Hust M. Discovery of Leptospira spp. seroreactive peptides using ORFeome phage display. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2019; 13:e0007131. [PMID: 30677033 PMCID: PMC6363232 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0007131] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2018] [Revised: 02/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/05/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Leptospirosis is the most common zoonotic disease worldwide. The diagnostic performance of a serological test for human leptospirosis is mainly influenced by the antigen used in the test assay. An ideal serological test should cover all serovars of pathogenic leptospires with high sensitivity and specificity and use reagents that are relatively inexpensive to produce and can be used in tropical climates. Peptide-based tests fulfil at least the latter two requirements, and ORFeome phage display has been successfully used to identify immunogenic peptides from other pathogens. Methodology/Principal findings Two ORFeome phage display libraries of the entire Leptospira spp. genomes from five local strains isolated in Malaysia and seven WHO reference strains were constructed. Subsequently, 18 unique Leptospira peptides were identified in a screen using a pool of sera from patients with acute leptospirosis. Five of these were validated by titration ELISA using different pools of patient or control sera. The diagnostic performance of these five peptides was then assessed against 16 individual sera from patients with acute leptospirosis and 16 healthy donors and was compared to that of two recombinant reference proteins from L. interrogans. This analysis revealed two peptides (SIR16-D1 and SIR16-H1) from the local isolates with good accuracy for the detection of acute leptospirosis (area under the ROC curve: 0.86 and 0.78, respectively; sensitivity: 0.88 and 0.94; specificity: 0.81 and 0.69), which was close to that of the reference proteins LipL32 and Loa22 (area under the ROC curve: 0.91 and 0.80; sensitivity: 0.94 and 0.81; specificity: 0.75 and 0.75). Conclusions/Significance This analysis lends further support for using ORFeome phage display to identify pathogen-associated immunogenic peptides, and it suggests that this technique holds promise for the development of peptide-based diagnostics for leptospirosis and, possibly, of vaccines against this pathogen. Leptospirosis is an infectious disease that is transmitted from animals to humans. It is associated with a broad range of clinical presentations, and diagnostic tests with high diagnostic accuracy are required in order to enable accurate diagnosis. Leptospirosis is diagnosed by detecting DNA of the pathogen or antibodies against it in patients’ blood; the latter are preferred in resource limited regions, and diagnostics based on peptides (small fragments of proteins) are advantageous because they are inexpensive to produce and more stable in hot climates than full-length proteins. We used a technique called open reading frame phage display to identify peptides from Leptospira spp. that could be used to detect antibodies against them in human blood. In this method, the pathogen’s genome is fragmented, the corresponding peptides displayed on the surfaces of phages (viruses that infect bacteria), and the peptides that bind most strongly to the patients’ antibodies are then selected by screening. Using this method, we identified 2 leptospiral peptides that accurately identified antibodies against Leptospira spp. in sera from patients with leptospirosis. These results are encouraging because they demonstrate that ORFeome phage display may be a powerful tool to develop better diagnostics for leptospirosis for use in less developed areas.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Siti Roszilawati Ramli
- Research Group Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Braunschweig University of Technology, Braunschweig, Germany
- Institute for Medical Research, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Gustavo M. S. G. Moreira
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Braunschweig University of Technology, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Jonas Zantow
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Braunschweig University of Technology, Braunschweig, Germany
| | - Marga G. A. Goris
- OIE and National Collaborating Centre for Reference and Research on Leptospirosis Academic Medical Center, Department of Medical Microbiology, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
| | - Van Kinh Nguyen
- Research Group Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, TWINCORE Center for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
| | - Natalia Novoselova
- Research Group Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, TWINCORE Center for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
- United Institute of Informatics Problems, National Academy of Sciences of Belarus, Minsk, Belarus
| | - Frank Pessler
- Research Group Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Braunschweig, Germany
- Research Group Biomarkers for Infectious Diseases, TWINCORE Center for Experimental and Clinical Infection Research, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail: (FP); (MH)
| | - Michael Hust
- Institute for Biochemistry, Biotechnology and Bioinformatics, Braunschweig University of Technology, Braunschweig, Germany
- * E-mail: (FP); (MH)
| |
Collapse
|